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THE TEACHER 
IN MODERN LIFE. 



BY ALBERT GARDNER BOYDEN, A. M., 

Principal Emeritus State Normal School, 
Bridgeiaater, Massachicsetts. 



1913: 

ARTHUR H. WILLIS, PRINTER, 
BRIDGEWATER, MASS. 



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COPYRIGHT, 1913, 
BY ALBERT GARDNER BOYDEN. 



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©CI.A346i84 



To My Pupils 

and My Associate Teachers 

This Book is Gratefully Dedicated. 



Preface. 



rpHE modern teacher must be a live person with a live pur- 
-*- pose, which he must execute in a live manner. 

The purpose of this volume is to set forth in brief topical 
outline the scope and aim of the work of the modern teacher, 
how he is to prepare himself for his great work; and how he 
is to come into the skilful practice of his art. 

Its subject matter, drawn from many sources, and ar- 
ranged to facilitate consideration, has been the basis for 
study and discussion in the preparation of thousands of 
young men and women who have become teachers in our 
public schools. It is the product of fifty-three years of ob- 
servation and study in teaching the graduating classes as 
principal, or principal emeritus, of the Bridgewater State 
Normal School. 

It has a message for teachers, for those who are prepar- 
ing to teach, for parents who are the co-partners of teachers, 
and for the general public who share with the parent and 
teacher in building character in the young. 

In response to requests for its publication, the volumne 
is sent forth in the hope that it will be helpful to many who 
are striving to educate the children and youth of today, who 
tomorrow will be the men and the women to do the world's 
work. 

Albert G. Boyden, 
March, 1913. 



Contents. 



PART I. 
SCOPE AND AIM OF THE TEACHER'S WORK. 

Chapter Page 

I. Introduction ...... 11 

II. The Point of View ..... 15 

III. The Teacher With His Pupils . . 24 

IV. The Teacher a Practical Idealist . . 35 



PART II. 

THE TEACHER IN PREPARATION FOR HIS WORK. 

V. The Educational Study of Man . . 40 

VI. Man's Plack In the World .... 43 

VII. The Study of the Body . . . . 51 

VIII. The Mind. Definitions. Intellect . . 67 

IX. The Mind Presenting the External World 79 

X. The Mind Presenting the Inner World . 95 

XI. The Mind Representing. Memory . . 98 

XII. The Mind Representing. Imagination . 108 

XIII. The Mind Generalizing .... 118 

XIV. The Mind Judging 135 

XV. The Mind Reasoning 139 

XVI. The Mind Systematizing .... 147 

XVII. The Mind Feeling. Sensibility . . 157 

XVIII. The Mind Choosing. The Will . . . 170 

XIX. Recapitulation ..... 185 

XX. Educational Study of Subjects . . . 189 



PART III. 



THE TEACHER IN THE SKILFUL PRACTICE OF HIS ART. 



XXI. The Art of Teaching .... 195 

XXII. School Organization . ... 220 

XXIIL Principles of Government . . . 230 

XXIV. Observation of Parental Teaching . . 242 

XXV. Observation of Kindergarten . . . 261 

XXVI. Observation of the Four Primary Grades 254 

XXVII. Observation of the Five Grammar Grades 259 

XXVIIT. Observation of the High School . . 269 

XXIX. Preliminary Practice In Teaching . 279 

XXX. Personality of the Teacher . . . 280 

XXXI. In Conclusion ...... 285 



The Teacher In Modern Life. 



PART I. 

SCOPE AND AIM OF TEACHER'S WORK. 



CHAPTER I. 
INTRODUCTION. 

He most" lives who thinks most, feels the noblest, acts the best. 

— Bailey. 

1. Life. Life in itself is the |[nscrutable mystery of 
God, but the phenomena of hfe— nutritive, animal, and 
rational, — are ever before us and present the most interest- 
ing, the most helpful, and the most important subjects for 
study that can engage our attention. 

2. Human Life. We are individual human beings with 
our inheritance of natural ability of one, two, five, or ten 
talents; members of the great brotherhood of man; children 
of "Our Father," living in his world of marvelous beauty, 
wonderful in its adaption to our needs, big with opportunity 
for the unfolding and perfecting of our lives individually, 
socially, and filially. 

3. Modern Life. The modern life into which the teacher 
of today in our country enters as a living factor is a com- 
munity of more than ninety-one millions of persons of all 
nationalities, one great state composed of smaller states, 
holding international relations with all the states of the 
world; living on a territory extending into all climes and to 
the distant isles of the sea, rich in all the natural resources 
necessary to sustain a high state of civilization; limited by 
the ocean on the east, south, and west, by the Great Lakes 
and the territory of a sister nation of the same blood on the 
north; under a republican form of government founded upon 
the intelligence and virtue of its citizens, "which aims to 
secure the prevalence of justice by self imposed law," to give 
every man "a square deal," to educate every man to 
"square his life by the Ten Commandments," to seek the 



12 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

higher moral and spiritual life and the social righteousness 
which exalteth a nation. 

4. Builders of the Nation. We have our systems of 
public schools for the building of character in our children 
and for Americanizing the children from foreign shores. 
The quality of the education given in our public schools is 
measured by the competency and character of our public 
school teachers. "The builders of the Nation are the fathers, 
the mothers, the teachers. They are educating the children 
from the cradle. ' ' 

5. Question. (1) The primary question for every man 
is not. How many tafents have I, but, Am I using every 
talent I have to the full measure of my ability? Am I living 
for self, or am I living the larger, higher life in the service 
of God and my f ellowmen ? 

(2) How did I come by all that which I call my own, — 
"my life, my home, my friends, my education, my money, 
my power, my work," — all the opportunities of my life? 
They are all the result of forces which were in action before 
I arrived in this world. 

(3) How can I ever pay the debt I owe to God and my 
f ellowmen for the rich inheritance to which I was born? 
Surely I have freely received. All these riches have been 
loaned to me. I have had but to reach out my hand and 
receive these gifts of my life. 

6. The Higher Life. The one great business of every 
human being is to live the higher life in the service of God 
and his f ellowmen. The Great Teacher says, * ' Seek ye first 
the kingdom of God and His righteousness, and all things 
needful shall be added unto you." "And whosoever will be 
great among you, let him be your minister; and whosoever 
will be chief among you, let him be your servant." " Freely 
ye have received, freely give." 

7. The Evolution of the Earth. The age-long process 
of the evolution of the earth as the home of man in this life 
while he is being educated in this great world school is a 
strong indication that man was made for an endless life, of 
which this life is only the beginning. 



INTRODUCTION. 13 

8. The Gift of Rational Life. God gave man the great 
gift of rational life that he might have the power of dominion 
over all the earth. The earth is the great laboratory in which 
man is to work out the problems of life. It is only by the 
righteous exertion of all his powers that man finds the high- 
est good and the whole good of his life and comes into the 
full joy of living. 

The course of study in this great world school of life is 
endless. God is constantly opening to man new manifesta- 
tions of powerg, new revelations of truth and beauty, new 
exhibitions of love for his children. 

9. Laws of Life. The laws of life are God's laws and 
they remain the same through all generations. The nature 
of all men is one. There is no new psychology, but psycho- 
logy is new to each generation. The principles of education 
are universal. There is no new education, but education is 
new to each succeeding generation. The changes come in 
adapting the application of the principles of education to the 
advancing stages in man's development and progress. 

10. The Master. The master [of the great school of life 
in which we all are pupils has infinite wisdom, power, and 
goodness. He knows every need of every pupil, he has the 
ability to supply every need, and the love which constantly 
seeks every good for every pupil, and He has a plan for the 
life of every pupil. 

11. New Pupils. Every day anew generation of pupils 
enters this great school of life seeking their places among 
their fellow pupils. They come helpless, and dependent upon 
their parents and teachers. They have everything to learn. 
The Great Teacher, the friend of every child, says, "Suffer 
the little children to come unto me and forbid them not, for 
of such is the kingdom of heaven." 

12. The Problem to be Solved. The great problem given 
to the parent and the teacher to solve is. How to discover the 
young human soul to himself; to lead him to find the forces 
and powers which are active in nature and in man; to lead 
him to find the conditions and products of the normal activity 
of these forces and powers; to lead him to the command of 



/ 



14 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

his body for the rational expression of himself; to lead him 
to that self-command and self-direction that will enable him 
to hve and do his share in the world's work. 

13. The Solution of the Problem. How to set our better 
self to work to achieve the solution of this life problem is the 
object of our thought in this series of discussions upon the 
Teacher in Modern Life. 

14. The True Teacher is a Practical Idealist, who has a 
clear idea of the nature and scope of his work; and a skilful 
working knowledge of the natural modes of expressing him- 
self; of the modes of activity common to men; of what is 
peculiar to the individual man; of the principles of education; 
of character building; of the subjects to be used in teaching; 
of the art of teaching; of the organization of the school; of 
the principles of government; of the power of the teacher's 
personality. 

15. An Educational Course of Study. The preparation of 
the teacher calls for an educational course of study to set 
forth the Gospel of service in teaching. The purpose of this 
course is manifold and involves many subjects. The subject 
matter of the course needs to be organized and expressed in 
topical arrangement, that the teacher may see clearly and 
connectedly what he has to do, and go on to learn definitely 
how he is to accomplish his work. Keen observation, clear 
thinking, simple expression, and the spirit of loving service 
along all the lines of the teacher's work, are essentials of its 
successful accomplishment. 

" Four things a man must surely do 
If he would make his record true; 
To think without confusion, clearly, 
To act from honest motives purely, 
To love his fellowmen sincerely, 
To trust in God and heaven securely" 

— Dr. Henry Van Dyke. 



CHAPTER II. 
THE POINT OF VIEW. 

That men may have life abundantly. — The Master. 

§ I. The Purpose of the Teacher. 

1. Abundant Life for the Pupil. The Great Teacher 
said, in speaking of himself as the Good Shepherd, "I came 
that men may have life and that they may have it abun- 
dantly." Every true teacher comes to his pupils that they 
may have abundantly, physical, intellectual, esthetic, moral, 
and spiritual life. He is to enter into the whole life of his 
pupils and bear them on in his own life towards perfection of 
character. 

2. Three Fundamental Questions. What is the young 
human being? What is it to live? What is teaching? need 
to be answered broadly at the outset, to get the point of view 
from which the teacher can see the scope and aim of his work 
in clear perspective; see how he is to prepare himself for his 
work; and how he is to come into the skilful practice of his 
art. 

§11. What is the Young Human Being? 

1. He is the Greatest and Most Beautiful Object in This 
World. Greatest in the possibilities which are involved in 
his power to think, to love and hate, to will and achieve. 
Most beautiful, in his appeal to our sense of the perfection to 
which he may attain. He is fresh from the hand of his Crea- 
tor, who breathed into his nostrils the breath of life and he 
became a living soul. He is that most mysterious union of 
matter and mind, body and soul, flesh and spirit. 

2. He Has a Six Story Life. (1) The nutritive life of 



16 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

eating, drinking, digestion, and sleeping for sustaining the 
body. 

(2) The animal life of sensation and voluntary motion 
which puts him into active communication with the external 
world. 

(3) The intellectual life of perception, memory, imagi- 
nation, and reflection which impels him to think. 

(4) The emotional life of instinct, emotion, desire, and 
affection by which he is impelled to choice and action. 

(5) The moral life of feeling obligation to choose the 
higher good and the right way of action, and of feeling 
approbation after right action and guilt after wrong action, 
for governing his natural impulses which have no limit in 
themselves. 

(6) The spiritual life of God-consciousness by which he 
is to choose the principle that shall rule his life and give him 
dominion over himself and the world. 

Each lower story of his life is in condition for all the 
stories above it, and the individual is to live the life of each 
story in the way that will best promote the life of the stories 
above it and enable him to rise to the full stature of true 
manhood. 

3. He is Under the Action of His Heredity. * ' Like be- 
gets like " is the law of every species. He is the outcome of 
the lives that have flowed together into his being from his 
ancestors. He inherits the vital force, the mental aptitudes, 
and the personal traits of his parents according to the meas- 
ure of their development. 

4. He is Under the Ever Changing Pressure of His Six- 
fold Environment. (1) He lives in constant relation to the 
natural world which encircles him at every step of his course, 
and furnishes him with new ideas for his thinking and his 
sense of beauty, and with the re-action of her forces upon 
his will. 

(2) He lives in the home in close relation to father and 
mother, brother and sister, under authority, in the atmos- 
phere of love, in which he learns the great lessons of obedi- 



THE POINT OF VIEW. 17 

ence, industry, fidelity, and love, in proportion to the quality 
of the home. 

(3) He lives in the school in intimate relation w^ith his 
teachers and fellow-pupils, in which his life is developed by 
all-round teaching and training in proportion to the good 
quality of the school. 

(4) He lives in relation to the church, either directly 
or indirectly, in which he is to learn the lessons of righteous- 
ness. 

(5) He lives in relation to the larger community of 
society, the state, the nation, and the race, in which he is to 
learn the lessons of justice. 

(6) He lives, moves, and has his being in God, who 
speaks to him in the inner man bidding him follow the lead- 
ing of his spirit. 

5. He Has a Long Period of Infancy. In the language 
of Henry Ward Beecher, ' ' The nature of man is one which, 
when brought fully up to its divine ideal, will produce con- 
stant happiness. 

But man is not born into an ideal state — into a perfect 
state, even. On the contrary he is born farther from his 
nature than any other creature on earth. Nothing is so far 
from perfection when it starts as man. There is nothing so 
far from the perfection of even his physical powers as man. 
Born as a babe, what is a man that neither sees nor hears; 
that distinguishes nothing; that knows nothing? And yet 
that child is a son of God, and is destined yet, through evolu- 
tion, education, and inspiration, to rise and be but little lower 
than the angels. But, oh, how long is the journey from the 
cradle to the crown." 

6. He Has Distinctly Marked Stages of Development, 
infancy, childhood, boyhood, youth, young manhood, and 
maturity. He is longer in coming to maturity than any other 
animal. He has great capacity for progress and for the 
development of character. This capacity makes his education 
a matter of the highest moment. 

7. Sex.— Sex is a strong, pervasive, and controlling ele- 
ment which must be kept steadily in mind in the education of 



18 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

human beings. " Male and female created He them." Each 
is the complement of the other. The family is the unit of 
human society. The definite and permanent relationships of 
father and mother, brother and sister, are the conditions for 
the cultivation of the social virtues which are the foundations 
of human society. 

8. Stimulus and Direction. The human being needs 
stimulus and direction adapted to his heredity, his environ- 
ment, the different stages of his development, his sex, his 
individuality. Such in broad perspective are the human 
beings whom the teacher is to incite to live. 

§111. What is it to Live? 

1. W^e Live Under Law. The one great fact for us to 
remember about the action of a law is its uniformity. There 
is no variableness in a law. Law gives stability, certainty, 
and liberty, which are fundamental conditions of life. There 
cannot be a law without a penalty for its violation and there 
is no escape from the penalty of a violated law. 

2. Law is the Condition of Life. The laws of our being 
are the conditions which infinite wisdom has established to 
govern the unfolding of our life. They are prompted by His 
infinite love, which causes all things to work together for our 
good. 

" Looking outward, looking soulward, 
We would learn life's perfect law, 
What the law is and the prophets, 
Simply love for God and man." 

3. Reason for Law. ' * Every law of God finds its reason 
in the highest well-being of man." Obedience to the laws of 
our being brings joy and peace and perfection of character. 
Disobedience to these laws brings unrest and sorrow and 
degradation of the soul. The weak, impoverished, degraded, 
human being is the product of disobedience of the laws of 
human life, either by himself or by his ancestors. 

4. "Law is the Mother of Liberty."— As we conform to 
the laws of our being we have the highest thought, the 
purest joy, and the greatest freedom and strength of will. 



THE POINT OF VIEW. 19 

5. *' Submission to Law is the Price of Power." The 
whole range of our being in the full exercise of all our power 
must conform to the laws of our Creator, if we would secure 
the highest good of which we are capable, and the whole 
good we were made to enjoy. This can come to us only 
through the free, conscious exertion of all our power. 

6. Every Human Being is Dependent Upon His Fel- 
lows. The child, the boy, the youth is dependent upon the 
parent and teacher for support, care, and the right beginning 
in life. The young man is dependent upon his elders for 
stimulus, direction, and encouragement to push on in the 
right course. The mature man is dependent upon his fellows 
for stimulus, direction, and fellowship; and all are dependent 
upon infinite wisdom for inspiration, illumination, strength, 
and guidance in the struggle of life. 

7. Every Person is in a Struggle. His natural appe- 
tites, desires, and affections contend with his reason and 
conscience for excessive indulgence. He is in a struggle 
with his natural environment to secure food, clothing, shel- 
ter, and the property he must have to enjoy his existence. 
He is in struggle with his fellows contending for his place 
among them that he may be one with them. He is in strug- 
gle with the laws of his Maker, often unwilling to obey them 
and come into harmony with the divine mind. 

8. The Life of Today is the Outcome of the Thought, 
the Invention, the Toil, the Struggle and the Sacrifice of the 
Past. Motley thus tersely sums up the evolution of American 
hfe: — "Speech, the alphabet, Mt. Sinai, Egypt, Greece, 
Rome, Nazareth, the feudal system, the Magna Charter, 
gunpowder, the printing press, the mariner's compass, 
America." This is the stream of life into which the individ- 
ual American is born, which is flowing on into the genera- 
tions which are to follow. 

9. Life Becomes Complex as Civilization Advances. A 
century ago the population was largely in the country, there 
were few cities. The rural home was the centre of industrial 
and social life. As the century moved on there came the 
evolution of mechanical power in the steam engine, the loco- 



20 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

motive, and the steamship; there came the substitution of 
machinery for hand labor in the shop, in the factory, and on 
the farm; there came the telegraph and the telephone, the 
electric motor and the electric light. These inventions have 
greatly facilitated travel, transportation, trade and com- 
merce; have made numerous divisions and subdivisions of 
labor; have brought the people into large centers of popula- 
tion; have intensified the desire for property, knowledge, and 
power; and call for a corresponding evolution in esthetic, 
moral, spiritual, and educational thought. 

10. The Modern School System. With these great 
changes in the industrial and social conditions of Hfe there 
has come the modern school system of the graded school, and 
its supplement, the free high school, and the industrial school. 
In the modern home, often the father is so much absorbed in 
business, and the mother is so much engaged in social Hfe, 
that they do not take sufficient time or thought for the educa- 
tion of their children ; they devolve this most important duty 
upon the school in large measure. The school and the teacher 
have become a larger and constantly enlarging factor in the 
education of the children. 

11. Aim of Life. The aim of life is the unfolding and 
perfecting of the whole man, the securing of knowledge, 
power,— physical, intellectual, moral, and spiritual,— and 
skill, to the full measure of his ability, that he may keep the 
law of love for God and man. 

12. Living. Living is the conscious exertion and control 
of all our powers, up to the full measure of our ability, under 
the laws of our being. Whatever the vocation, whatever the 
condition, whatever the times in which one lives, he should 
be a true man, living to the full measure of true manhood. 
If he lives he will be in harmony with himself, with his fel- 
lowmen, and with God. 

§IV. What is Teaching? 

1. Teaching Has Three Prime Factors, the teacher who 
teaches, and the pupil who is taught, -standing face to face, 
eye to eye,— and the truth, beauty, and goodness which the 



THE POINT OF VIEW. 21 

pupil needs to acquire and which the teacher causes him to 
gain. 

2. Concerning the First Factor, the Teacher W^ho Teaches- 
It has been said, that the essence of teaching is causing 
another to know; and that the essence of training is causing 
another to do; and it may be said, that the essence of educa- 
tion is causing another, through knowing and doing, to 
become what he ought to be. 

Since knowing, feehng, and wilHng are inseparable ele- 
ments in the conscious mental current of the pupil, the 
teacher cannot stop with causing him to know, he must also 
cause him to feel and will, to do and become. 

The secret of power in teaching is the personality of the 
teacher. The teacher teaches unconsciously by what he is, 
consciously by what he does. 

Definition: Teaching is the subtle play of the teacher's 
life upon the pupil's life, causing him to know the truth he 
would not learn by himself, to do what he would not do of 
himself, and to be the person he would not alone become. 

3. Concerning the Second Factor, the Pupil W^ho is 
Taught. He must give himself to follow the lead of the 
teacher in the full exertion of his mental power. Learning 
is an active mental process. 

4. Concerning the Third Factor. The acquisition of 
truth, beauty, and goodness by the active, intelligent exer- 
tion of the pupil is the condition for the unfolding and per- 
fecting of his life. 

5. The Aim of Teaching is the Perfection of Character. 
The assimilation of truth, beauty, and goodness by the pupil 
is the condition for the accomplishment of this aim. "Know 
the truth and the truth shall make you free," is the word of 
the Master. 

6. School Teaching. School teaching implies a company 
of young persons, organized, who are to be taught as a 
means to their education, and a person who is competent to 
stimulate and direct these young persons, both individually 
and collectively; which means, one who can teach every mem- 
ber of the class while he teaches the individual pupil; who 



22 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

can hold every pupil up to his best effort; and who is able to 
enter into the social life of his pupils to lead them out and up 
in their thought into the larger and better life of the commu- 
nity, the state, the nation, and the race. In these days of 
rapid communication, the life of the individual is related to 
the life of the whole race. 

7. Instruction is the W^ork of Building In, which is Two- 
fold. Instruction on the part of the pupil is the constant 
building into his mind of knowledge and power by his own 
exertion. 

Instruction on the part of the teacher is the constant, 
intelligent stimulation and direction of the pupil's exertion 
with a view to his education. Teaching is the condition for 
instruction. 

8. Education. (1) The constant upbuilding of the 
pupil by instruction results in his education. Left to him- 
self, the child would run wild, in his ignorance of the laws of 
life, and the unlimited impelling power of his natural im- 
pulses. Under continuous wise stimulation and direction he 
is brought up into the state in which he has these impelling 
powers under the control of the governing power of reason 
and conscience. When he has gained control of his powers 
so that he chooses and acts rationally in his relations to 
nature, man and God, he may be said to be educated. Educa- 
tion is to be gauged by the degree of self-command one has 
acquired in meeting the demands of life. 

(2) There is much in the homely definition of the 
mechanic, who said, "Education is knowing how to get onto 
your job." The "job" of the human being is to get com- 
plete control of all his powers, physical, intellectual, emo- 
tional, moral, and spiritual, so that he may live. 

(3) Education as a means is the influence which the 
educator exerts in bringing up the child from his helpless- 
ness and ignorance at birth into complete command of him- 
self, that he may move on under his own direction in the 
unfolding and perfecting of his life. 

(4) Education as an end is the state of the person in 



THE POINT OF VIEW. 23 

which he has complete command of all his powers, physical, 
and rational. 

(5) Education in its widest meaning includes all the 
influences which act upon the person to determine his normal 
activity and make him a true man. It includes all his envi- 
ronment, natural, human, and divine. 

(6) Education begins with life and continues through 
life. We are educated by living. Life is continual increase 
in power and self control. 

(7) " The end of education is the development of char- 
acter; the test of character is capacity for service." 



CHAPTER III. 
. THE TEACHER WITH HIS PUPILS. 

I am among you as he that serves.— The Master. 

§1. Qualifications of the Teacher. 

1. The Personal Relation of Teacher and Pupil is Most 
Intimate. The teacher is the controlling power in the life of 
the school, the guide, guardian, governor, exemplar, friend, 
educator of his pupils. 

(1) The teacher's personal appearance and bearing at 
once attract or repel his pupils. 

(2) His personal habits are a constant help or hindrance 
in forming good habits in them. 

(3) His thinking gives tone and coloring to their 
thoughts. 

(4) His taste has much influence in forming their 
tastes. 

(5) His moral character impresses itself upon their 
moral natures. 

(6) His spirit is imbibed by them. The unspoken, 
unconscious influence of the teacher, v^rhich gives tone, qual- 
ity, power, to all his instruction, enters so deeply into the life 
of his pupils that his life affects their lives for good or evil 
with great power. 

(7) We cannot emphasize too strongly the personal 
fitness of the teacher for his work. If he is not fit to exert a 
wholesome spiritual influence upon the young lives under his 
control let him turn quickly to another vocation. 

2. Spirit of the Teacher. David P. Page, author of Theory 
and Practice of Teaching, says, "The spirit which should 
actuate the true teacher is a spirit that seeks not alone pecu- 



THE TEACHER WITH HIS PUPILS. 25 

niary emolument, but desires to be in the highest degree 
useful to those who are to be taught; a spirit that elevates 
above everything else the nature and capabilities of the 
human soul, and that trembles under the responsibility of 
attempting to be its educator; a spirit that seeks the highest 
of all rewards, an approving conscience and an approving 
God; a spirit that earnestly inquires what is right, and 
dreads to do what is wrong; a spirit that can recognize and 
reverence the handiwork of God in every child, and that 
burns with a desire to be instrumental in training it to the 
highest degree of which it is capable. Such a spirit is the 
first thing to be sought by the teacher, and without it, the 
highest talent cannot make him truly excellent in his profes- 
sion." 

With this spirit the teacher will love his work, will have 
a personal interest in his pupils, will be willing to work and 
to sacrifice for their welfare. It is the spirit of seeking to 
make other lives richer and fuller through service. 

3. Good Character. The teacher must have genuine 
good character, must be in the spirit of his life, what he 
would have his pupils be. The character of the teacher is 
the strongest moral influence in the school. "We do more 
good by being good than in any other way." 

4. Sympathy. The teacher must have the power to 
enter into the life of the pupil, to think with him, to feel 
with him, to serve with him, to put himself in the pupil's 
place. We are governed by sympathy. Sympathy wanting, 
all is wanting. 

5. Power to Lead. The teacher must have the power 
to lead. He must be able to present truth clearly, forcibly, 
persuasively. The truth must prevail when once it is brought 
home to the soul. ' ' Truth comes home to the mind so natu- 
rally that when we learn it for the first time, it seems as 
though we did no more than recall it to memory. " " Truth 
is the most powerful thing in the world, since even fiction 
must be governed by it, and can only please by its resem- 
blance." Teaching truth is the most effective way to sup- 
plant error. 



26 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

6. Condition of Leadership. If the teacher would pre- 
sent truth, beauty, and goodness clearly he must see them 
with clear vision; if he would present them forcibly he must 
lay hold of them with all his strength; if he would present 
persuasively, he must love them with all his heart. They 
must possess his own soul, and find expression through his 
own personality. 

7. Power to Train. The teacher must incite his pupil to 
do with his might what he has to do, and to hold on to the 
end. This is the secret of successful effort. Mental discip- 
line consists in the power to concentrate energy and to con- 
tinue effort at will. To accomplish this result requires the 
aid of a strong teacher, who illustrates in himself this power 
to work. 

8. Power to Inspire. The teacher must awaken high 
ideals in his pupil. Horace Mann said: "The teacher who 
is attempting to teach without inspiring the pupil with the 
desire to learn is hammering on cold iron," The perfect 
character is never attained without the noble purpose which 
surmounts all difficulties in the way of its attainment. To 
inspire this purpose is the highest achievement of the teach- 
ing art. It is by the enthusiasm of the teacher's own life, as 
manifest in his high resolve, his love for work, and his per- 
sonal interest in his pupils, that he inspires them to their 
best efforts. 

9. Large Knowledge. The teacher must have large 
knowledge of human nature, of the individual pupil, of the 
subjects he is to use in teaching. He must know much, that 
he may teach a little well. His knowledge must be at ready 
command, that he may use it without hesitation. "The first 
step to knowledge is to know that we are ignorant." The 
teacher must be a keen observer and a diligent student that 
he may have fresh thought and mental vigor for daily use. 

10. Skill and Tact. The teacher must have skill and tact. 
Skill is that ready command of the means of teaching which 
comes from an intelligent acquaintance with the details of 
his work and with the motives by which the pupil is to be 
incited to right activity. * ' Tact is the open eye, the quick 



THE TEACHER WITH HIS PUPILS. 27 

ear, the judging taste, the keen smell, and the lively touch; 
it is the interpreter of all riddles, the surmounter of all diffi- 
culties, the remover of all obstacles." 

11. Must Grow. The teacher must grow. To this end 
he must Go Right On Working. He must be like "the brave 
old oak who stands in his pride alone" battling with the 
storms, bearing fruit, giving a grateful shade in the noon-tide 
heat to the flocks gathered beneath him. He has year by 
year spread out his roots, extended his stems, and built a 
ring of new wood around his trunk and branches. So the 
teacher must constantly increase in wisdom and in stature. 

12. The Transcendent Power. The teacher who has the 
right spirit, the genuine character, the warm sympathy, the 
power to lead, to train, to inspire, and the requisite know- 
ledge, skill, tact, and growth^ is the transcendent power in 
the development of human lives. 

§n. The Teacher Must be Taught by His Pupils. 

1. The Pupil is an Individual. Every pupil has his own 
will and purpose, and these must be recognized and respected. 
The needs of the pupil must guide the teaching. We can 
teach the pupil only as he teaches us through our study of 
him what we are to do for him. He is constantly showing 
what he needs. The teacher must be on the alert to study 
these manifestations. 

2. Three Phases of Activity. Three fundamental phases 
of self-activity reveal themselves in the pupil, which the 
teacher should be quick to appreciate. The fiy^st phase is the 
conscious recognition by the pupil of the self that he is and 
the ideal self that he desires to be, and strives to become. 
This aspiration for the ideal self, when once awakened, pos- 
sesses his soul and controls his activity. It is in this phase 
of the pupil's activity that the life of the teacher touches the 
life of the pupil to affect his ideals of life and kindle his 
aspiration to higher Hving. 

The second phase is^^^the conscious recognition by the 
pupil of himself, and the not-self, the object which he is 
eager to know; of which he asks, What is it? Why is it? 



28 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

What can I do with it? This desire of knowledge is the 
working point for the teacher, in which he can incite the 
pupil to right activity by bringing him into sympathetic rela- 
tion with the right objects of thought. 

The third phase is the eager desire of the pupil to plunge 
into the larger life of the world about him; he feels his kin- 
ship to the universal mind. He is seeking to be one with the 
larger life of which he is a part. He is keenly susceptible to 
personal influence. The question is, What does he seek? In 
what phase of life is he most interested? This element is a 
powerful incentive which the teacher is to measure and 
wisely direct. 

3. To Some the Child is Only a Little Animal. He is 
indeed an animal with strong animal propensities, but a 
rational animal, to whose rationality we can appeal, and 
thereby lead him to higher life. The thoughtful observer 
sees that his rational life dominates his activity, and raises 
him far above the animal. Lowell says: 

" Children are the apostles of God, day by day, 
Sent forth to preach of love and hope and peace." 

If we are in touch with them, they are to us the highest 
of the ministries of life, and bring out the best that is in us, 
as we serve them. 

"Nature has laid for each child the foundations of a 
divine building, if the soul will build thereon." The teacher 
can help the child to the divine building, only as he makes a 
careful study of the child's manifestations. 

§111. The Teacher Must Study the Environment 
OF His Pupils. 

1. Relation of Person to Environment. All the rights, 
duties, and privileges of human beings arise from the rela- 
tions of man to his environment. 

2. Natural Environment. Nature is the primary teacher 
of the child. (1) She teaches him many things better than 
they can be taught by man. Nature exerts a direct and posi- 
tive influence upon every pupil's life. (2) She speaks to 
him a various language. She tells one story to the child who 



THE TEACHER WITH HIS PUPILS. 29 

dwells by the sea, another to him who lives among the hills, 
and still another to him who dwells upon the plain, and no 
two persons are affected to the same degree by the same 
phenomena. (3) The teacher has to adapt his teaching to 
the primary ideas which the pupil has acquired from his 
natural environment. Hence the teacher must study with 
great care the natural environment in which the lives of his 
pupils are unfolding. 

3. Human Environment. The teacher must study the 
development of the pupil in his relation to his fellowmen, 
because he is pre-eminently a social being. Nothing affects 
a person so much as the influence of other persons, either 
because they are so much like himself that he can warmly 
sympathize with their experience, or because they are so 
unlike him as to be attractive or repellant. The child's 
desire of society, of the esteem of others, and his natural 
tendency to imitate, make him keenly susceptible to his fel- 
lows. He is, therefore, strongly influenced by the examples 
and ideals which he most frequently sees. 

(1) The Home. The teacher must study the home life 
of the pupil. The family exerts the strongest social influence. 
" There is no place like home, be it ever so humble." There 
are no words so full of meaning to the child as father, 
mother, sister, brother. There is no love so tender and 
strong, no fellowship so sweet, no condition so favorable for 
the unfolding of the life of the child as that found in the 
true home. 

(2) The School. The child comes into a new exper- 
ience at school. He is deeply affected by contact and compe- 
tition with his fellows. He is brought into close relation with 
those who are inferior, equal to, or superior to himself in 
ability and attainment. He gets the measure of himself by 
his intercourse with others. He is obliged to consider his 
relations to them, and to conform his conduct to these new 
conditions. The school is the opportunity for bringing him 
into right relation to his fellows. Society can be what it 
should be only as its individual members are trained from 
infancy to live together in the right spirit. 



30 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

The public school brings the children into a larger organ- 
ized social life than that of the family, and trains them to 
live with their fellows. It has the elements of the life of the 
state. The school trains the child to obedience, truthfulness, 
industry, order, reverence for law, a just regard for the 
rights of others, in short, to all the virtues of a good citizen. 

(3) The Church. The life of the church, the commu- 
nity, and the state outside the home and the school strongly 
influences the child's thought, feeling, and action. Its influ- 
ence comes into the mental current of the child to affect the 
unfolding of his life, as quietly as the inflowing of the air 
into the blood that nourishes his body; and its effects upbn 
his spiritual life, like that of the air upon the blood, is deter- 
mined by the quality of the inflowing current. The human 
environment of the child is a mighty power in his develop- 
ment. He is to be "Taught to look through manhood up 
to manhood's God." 

4. Divine Environment. The teacher must study human 
development in its relation to the "Life of life," in whom 
we live. A man becomes a true man only by conforming his 
life to the standard which Divine wisdom sets for him. Philips 
Brooks says: " The meaning of life, of its happiness and its 
sorrow, of its successes and its disappointments, is this, — 
that man must be fastened close to God, and live by divine 
life not his own, by the divine life made his own, by the close 
binding of the two together by faith and love." The study 
of man's relation to his Maker in the spirit of loving rever- 
ence is a vital element in teaching. 

§IV. The Teacher Must Cultivate the Whole 
Pupil. 

Complete Development. The most practical thing for any 
child is to be trained to the full command of all his powers. 
A person thus trained is fitted to enter upon any vocation to 
which his ability adapts him. The teacher should strive in 
all his teaching and training for the complete development of 
his pupils. 

1. The Sound Body. The first essential of complete 



THE TEACHER WITH HIS PUPILS. 31 

development is a sound body. A good stomach with a 
rational master, who will not suffer it to be overworked, 
free circulation of the blood, full respiration, vigorous and 
graceful muscular training, a generous supply of nervous 
energy and sleep are the primary conditions of physical life. 

2. Intellectual Power. The second essential of complete 
development is intellectual power in thought and expression. 
Keen observation, quick, strong memory, vivid imagination, 
clear, distinct thought and expression, and the ability to 
arrange and systematize, are the essential qualities of intel- 
lectual power. There is a prevalent tendency to center the 
teaching upon the development of the subjects studied, more 
than upon the development of mental power. Every school 
is a troop of thinkers. There is no stronger test of a teach- 
er's real character than his power to stimulate and direct the 
thought of his pupils. 

3. Refinement of Feeling. The third essential of com- 
plete development is refinement of feeling. Self-respect, 
delicacy of expression, good judgment, consideration for 
others, a warm heart, courtesy, and kindness are the ele- 
ments of this refinement. It finds expression in the manner, 
bearing, and behavior of the person. 

The teacher needs to cultivate in his pupils that (1) 
self-respect which will keep them from descending to any- 
thing which is low, coarse, vulgar or mean; that delicacy of 
perception and feeling which makes them quick to perceive 
and appreciate the beautiful in nature, in art, and in human 
life; that (2) good judgment which will enable them to 
decide correctly concerning the true, the beautiful and the 
good, and which will awaken their love for these objects; 
that (3) consideration for the feelings, rights, and privi- 
leges of others which will make them truly courteous and 
kind in their manner, bearing, and behavior towards all with 
whom they have to do. 

(4) ' 'Above all things reverence yourself. ' ' — Pythagoras. 
"The truest self-respect is not to think of self."— Beecher. 

(5) ' * Delicacy is to the mind what fragrance is to the 
flower." 



32 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

(6) " Good taste is the flower of good sense." 

— Poincelot. 

(7) "Kindness is the golden chain by which society is 
bound together. ' '—-Goethe. 

(8) " Politeness is real kindness kindly expressed." 

— Withe7'spoon. 

(9) These virtues, like all others, are most effectively 
taught by example. To teach them successfully, the teacher 
must appreciate and practice them, and keep them so con- 
stantly in mind that he will improve the opportunities which 
are so frequently coming in the school life, to lead his pupils 
to practice them. 

4. Supremacy of Conscience. The fourth essential of 
complete development is the supremacy of conscience. (1) 
When inclination and conscience both move to the right 
choice it is easy to make that choice. It is when they move 
to opposite choices that the struggle comes, and the test of 
character is made. (2) It is just here that we make the 
right moral choice or the wrong moral choice, which deter- 
mines the moral quality of our character. Clear teaching on 
this point is vitally important. True living comes from 
obedience to an enlightened conscience. 

(3) The teacher cannot escape the responsibihty of 
moral training. The pupil cannot be divided, he must move 
on as a whole. The moral trend of his life must be either 
upward or downward, in school as well as out of school. 

5. The Rightly Trained Will. The highest essential of 
complete development is the rightly trained will which deter- 
mines that the man will make the best use of himself and his 
possessions. The teacher's work is to train his pupil to 
choose and act rationally, that the power of rational self- 
control may be established, and he may be prepared for self- 
direction. Every man determines his own destiny by his 
own choice and action. 

6. Emphasis in Due Proportion. True teaching must 
emphasize in due proportion the cultivation of the physical, 
the intellectual, the emotional, and the moral natures, and 
the will. Upon this development depends the elevation of 



THE TEACHER WITH HIS PUPILS. 33 

all individual, family, social, political, and religious life. The 
moral and spiritual life of society is no higher than that of 
its individual members. Every vocation calls for a manly 
man or womanly woman for its prosecution. The teacher 
must seek for his pupil the sound body, the vigorous intel- 
lect, the refined taste, the regnant conscience, and the robust 
will. 

§V. The Teacher Must Make the School Home 
Attractive. 

1. The School Home. Upon a sunny knoll between two 
streets in the central part of the village, in the middle of 
spacious grounds, there stands, with its portals sheltered by 
the pendent branches of graceful elms, an attractive two 
story building inclosing ten large rooms, each having a 
smaller room adjoining, for the supplies and convenience of 
each class by itself. In each of the larger rooms a variety 
of plants are growing in the windows, slate boards skirt the 
walls, beautiful pictures hang above against the softly tinted 
walls, and polished desks with chairs stand adjusted on the 
floor, with a larger desk and tables alongside. The seats and 
desks are adapted to the physical comfort of the pupils. In 
each of the smaller rooms is a supply of good water, a col- 
lection of well selected natural objects and apparatus for the 
illustration of the various studies, and a carefully chosen 
library for the children's reading. The house is properly 
heated and ventilated, properly supplied with sanitaries, and 
so located that the sunshine brightens every room. 

2. Decoration of Schoolroom. It is a remunerative out- 
lay of effort on the part of the teacher to secure, through the 
help of the children, the decoration of the schoolroom with 
growing plants, the flowers, the foliage of the different sea- 
sons as they come, and works of art. It removes friction, 
and sweetens Hfe for both pupils and teacher. It furnishes 
objects for study, and quickens observation, thought, and 
expression. An attractive schoolroom diminishes absence 
and tardiness. " Hqme is the chief school of human virtue." 
The more homelike we make the school, the better we 



34 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

develop the child. 

3. School Grounds. The school grounds are well laid 
out, and hard, dry walks lead to the building. In front is a 
well kept lawn, in a part of which is the school garden, 
where the children are encouraged to plant and care for 
flowers and shrubs which are used in their study of natural 
objects. In the rear of the school building are ample play- 
grounds for the boys and girls, with trees so planted as not 
to interfere with the children at play. The children are 
taught to appreciate the school premises, and to have an 
interest in keeping them in good condition. This is the 
modern home of the central village school. 

4. Value of the School Home. Such a school home, 
with its pleasant outlook and surroundings, its convenient 
furnishings, decorated with beautiful natural objects and 
pictures, with its comfortable physical conditions, puts the 
child at ease physically and mentally, and silently appeals to 
him to make the best use of his power, time, opportunities 
and privileges. It makes the school life gladsome, exerts a 
strong educative influence, and is indispensable to the great- 
est usefulness of the school. Especially is this true for those 
children who come from homes in which these comforts and 
attractions are wanting. To these children the school home 
is the brightest spot in their lives. 

5. Incitement to Live. One thing is to be kept con- 
stantly in mind. The pupil is to be incited to live. The lessons 
of the school are of value only so far as they are lessons in 
true living. Is it said that the teacher in the public schools, 
with all his limitations, cannot reach the ideal set forth in 
this perspective of teaching? The question is not shall we 
reach our ideal, but what shall we strive for. The higher the 
ideal, the nobler the striving. "The virtue is in the struggle, 
not in the prize." "Perfection will always be in advance. 
The point will never be reached where there is not a better 
and a higher beyond. There is a real attainment. But each 
height gained commands a broader view. On the stepping 
stones of our living selves we evermore rise to higher 
things." — Dr. George Harris. 



CHAPTER IV. 
THE TEACHER A PRACTICAL IDEALIST. 



What we most need is not so much to realize the ideal as to 
idealize the real. — F. H. Hedge. 

§1. Ideals and Their Expression. 

1. Ideals Rule the Life. The work of our life is the 
expression of our ideals. The teacher must have true ideals 
of life and education and he must be able to give his ideals 
effective expression. He must have the happy combination 
of the theoretical and the practical in his work, hence we are 
led to consider the relation of theory and art in life and 
teaching. Every art has its theory. 

2. Art is Two-fold. Art is man's power to form, in dis- 
tinction from God's power to create. This power is two-fold, 
the power to discern clearly what is to be formed, and the 
power to execute the ideal discerned. {!) Distinct dis- 
cernment is the primary condition for skilful execution. 
Nicholas Tillinghast, the first principal of the Bridgewater 
State Normal School, who was a man of rare power of dis- 
cernment, said to his pupils one day: " If I had two minutes 
in which to save my life, I would spend the first minute in 
deciding what was to be done to save it, and the second in 
executing my decision." The power to discern distinctly is 
the result of careful practice in discerning. 

(2) The power to execute effectively is the outcome of a 
life of doing one's best. Father Taylor, the chaplain of the 
Seaman's Bethel, in Boston, preached a sermon one Sunday 
morning to a company of seamen which moved them power- 
fully. As he came from the pulpit he was asked: "How 
long did it take you to prepare that sermon?" "Forty 



36 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

years," he replied quickly; "I have been preaching forty 
years." 

3. There is Art in All Lines of Human Activity. (1) 
There is art in the simple transfer of masses of matter from 
one position to another. The art in manual labor is in dis- 
cerning the line of least resistance, and in making the trans- 
fer with the least expenditure of physical force. 

(2) There is art in working metals for use in utensils, 
tools, machinery, building material, or objects of taste. The 
art of working a metal is in clearly discerning its qualities, 
and in the skilful employment of the forces of nature to bring 
the metal to the desired condition. 

(3) There is art in designing buildings, monuments, 
ships, bridges, and carriages to adapt these structures to the 
needs of our life. The art in designing is in clearly conceiv- 
ing the design, and in the adequate expression of the ideal in 
drawing. 

(4) There is art in constructing the various designs. 
The art in constructing is in clearly conceiving the structure 
to be built, and in the skilful use of material and machinery 
in its construction. 

(5) There is art in painting the ideal picture, in the 
invention, composition, design, coloring, and expression, 
which produces the thing of beauty that satisfiies the culti- 
vated taste. The art in painting is in imagining the beautiful 
ideals and in the masterly expression of the ideas upon can- 
vass. 

(6) There is art in the vivid presentation of truth which 
inspires the soul of the listener, and persuades him to do the 
things desired by the speaker. The art of the orator is in 
the clear discernment of the working of the mind of the 
hearer, and in the skilful appeal to the feelings which move 
him to the desired action. 

(7) There is art in bringing up a child into true man- 
hood or womanhood. The art in educating is in clearly dis- 
cerning the needs of the child, and in the wise use of the 
means that will incite him to take the steps necessary to sat- 
isfy his needs. 



THE TEACHER A PRACTICAL IDEALIST. 37 

4. Definition of Art. Art is the power to discern what 
needs to be done and the skilful use of means to accomplish 
the desired end. The term art also indicates the finished 
product of the exertion of the power to discern and execute, 
as when we speak of the gallery of art. 

5. Degrees of Art. There are degrees of art in the vari- 
ous lines of human activity. (1) There is the laborer who 
brings the raw materials to the mechanic; there is the me- 
chanic who builds the structure; there is the architect who 
discerns the elements of fitness, strength, proportion, sym- 
metry, and imagines and traces the ideal building which the 
mechanic constructs. 

(2) There is the copyist who applies color in imitation 
of the picture which the master has given him. There is the 
master who originates and paints the ideal picture in its 
exquisite beauty of expression. 

(3) There is the speaker who gives his hearers infor- 
mation upon the subject which he presents. There is the 
orator who holds his hearers spell-bound by his power to stir 
the depths of their souls. 

(4) There is the formal teacher who keeps an orderly 
school; the intellectual teacher who keeps order and causes 
his pupils to know; the all-round teacher who keeps order, 
causes his pupils to know, and inspires them to noble living. 

6. Theory and Practice. Theory is the principles, the 
primary truths, upon which the art depends. Practice is the 
particular expression of these principles. The ideal cannot 
be executed until it is formed in the mind. All practice must 
be guided by theory. Theory and practice may be distin- 
guished in thought, but cannot be separated in life. Theory 
guides practice, practice modifies theory. If one says, " I do 
not believe in theory, one should follow his experience; " this 
man has his theory, which is, that experience should guide 
practice. He has a narrow theory which holds him to a 
limited practice. The knowledge of the principles which 
guide the practice broadens the view and solves many a diffi- 
cult problem. 



38 the teacher in modern life. 

§11. The Artist. 

1. The Artist Works From an Ideal. The artist works 
from an ideal which is ever in advance of his attainment. 
He has a constant succession of ideals. He is constantly 
striving for higher excellence, which gives him the inspira- 
tion and joy of continued progress. The artist is a person of 
fine mental fiber, he has keen perception, vivid imagination, 
sound judgment, quick sensibility. 

2. Qualifications of the Artist. (1) He must have natu- 
ral aptitude. This quality draws him to his art, he is in love 
with it, he has a yearning for it which cannot be satisfied 
outside its pursuit. He can discern and execute to a degree 
that would be unattainable without this yearning. 

(2) Dominant moral purpose is a potent element in an 
artist. He must be a true man. His character determines 
what use he will make of his ability, the line of thought he 
will pursue, the ideals he will set before himself. It is this 
purpose that nerves him to persistent effort for the realiza- 
tion of his ideals. His character gives quality to all his work. 

(3) He must know the nature of that upon which he 
works. He must know the principles which govern the prac- 
tice of his art. He cannot work the metals, design the com- 
plex structure, paint the beautiful picture, carve the life-like 
statue, stimulate the human being to live to the highest 
degree, without knowledge of these principles. This attain- 
ment means long and patient study. The artist must know 
all the details of good practice in his art. He must be both 
scientific and practical. He must know his tools and have 
skilful command of them that he may effectively apply the 
principles of his art. 

(4) The artist must have experience. Experience veri- 
fies the principles deduced by scientific study, shows the 
limitations of their application in practice, and gives skill in 
the use of means. Skill is the product of practice guided by 
the discernment which comes from intelligent experience and 
the study of principles. 

The highest attainment by any artist is made by the 



THE TEACHER A PRACTICAL IDEALIST. 39 

combination in due proportion of natural aptitude, character, 
knowledge, and experience. 

§111. The Teacher is an Artist. 

1. Teaching is the Highest of the Fine Arts. The teacher 
is working on human souls, his work calls for the wisest 
theory and the highest artistic skill. The teacher must be a 
keen observer of nature and men that he may have the ele- 
ments for high ideals; he must have a vivid imagination to 
use the elements gained by observation in forming the high- 
est ideals. 

He must have the artistic appreciation of beauty to set 
forth these ideals attractively. 

He must have the sound judgment which sharply dis- 
criminates the sensational and the essential, which holds the 
fundamental and enduring, and avoids all educational 
"fads." 

He must have the milk of human kindness which nour- 
ishes sympathy; the iron in the blood which gives the strong 
sense of justice; the faith that believes in God and his fel- 
lowmen; the hope that never gives up; and greatest of all, 
the love which never falters in striving for the highest and 
whole good of his pupils. 

2. The Function of the Teacher in modern life, broadly 
and briefly stated, is to stimulate and direct young human 
beings in the unfolding and perfecting of their lives, that 
they may live and do their share in the world's work. 



The Teacher in Modern Life. 



PART 11. 
IN PREPARATION FOR HIS WORK. 



CHAPTER V. 
EDUCATIONAL STUDY OF MAN. 



An individual man is a fruit which it cost all the foregoing ages to 
form and ripen. He is strong, not to do, but to live; not in his arms, but 
in his heart; not as an agent, but as a fact. — Emerson. 



§1, This Study Indispensable. 

We have answered broadly and briefly the fundamental 
questions, What is the young human being? What is it to 
live? What is teaching? and have reached the point of view^ 
where we see the scope and aim of the teacher's work in the 
great field of human life. 

1. The Question Now Is, How Shall the Teacher Prepare 
Himself for His Great Work ? (1) The aim of teaching, as 
we have seen, is the unfolding and perfecting of the whole 
man in the acquisition of knowledge, the development of 
power— physical, intellectual, moral, and spiritual— and skill, 
to the full measure of his ability, that he may fulfil the law of 
love for God and man. 

(2) It is evident that if the teacher is to stimulate and 
direct the development of young human beings, he must 
study man in his unity of body and mind; in his relation to 
the worlds of matter and of mind of which he is a part, with 
which he holds constant intercourse; and in his relation to his 
Maker, in whom he lives, moves, and has his being. 

(3) The educational study of man becomes imperative. 
The study is invaluable for its influence in expanding the 
mind, enlarging the views, elevating the aims, and strength- 
ening the character of the teacher. 



EDUCATIONAL STUDY OF MAN. 41 

§ II. The Object of the Educational Study of 
Man Is Three-fold. 

First, to find the modes of activity common to men. 

Second, to find how individual men differ. 

Third, to find the conditions and the products of the 
normal exertion of these activities. 

In finding the conditions of the normal exertion of these 
activities, w^e find the principles of education which guide 
the art of teaching and show how to bring up a child in the 
way he should go. 

§111. The Method of the Study is Three-fold. 

First, One must study the modes of activity in himself, 
and give close attention to the natural modes of expressing 
himself. 

Second, One must study others, must accurately observe 
the bodily manifestations of mental activity in others and 
compare them with his own manifestations. 

We cannot directly observe the action of another mind. 
We observe the bodily expression, compare it with our own 
expression, and infer the inner activity which underlies the 
outward manifestation. 

"Know thyself" is the condition for knowing the mani- 
festation of another mind. 

Third, One must learn by hearing and reading the testi- 
mony of other observers and thinkers upon the subject. We 
can hear and read intelligently upon any subject only as we 
have acquired by our own observation the ideas which the 
spoken and written words express. Observation must pre- 
cede reading. 

By finding, from wide observation and testimony, the 
modes of activity which are common to men, we acquire 
definite, general knowledge, which enables us to deal wisely 
with classes of men. 

By observing and comparing individual men with respect 
to the difference in their activities, we acquire definite par- 
ticular knowledge, which enables us to deal wisely with the 
individual man. 



42 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

§IV. The Difficulties in Prosecuting this Study 
ARE Three-fold. 

First, There is difficulty in attending to the action of 
one's own mind. The sights and sounds of the external world 
strongly solicit the mind, and the mental states we would 
consider pass so swiftly by. 

Second, There is difficulty in observing others. The cor- 
rect interpretation of their manifestations implies keen obser- 
vation. We often fail to make our observations sufficiently 
accurate. Furthermore we are inclined to project our own 
modes of thinking and feeling into others. Often others, 
especially children, are in conditions very different from our 
own. We find it difficult to put ourselves in their places, and 
failing to do this, we misinterpret their act. 

Third, There is difficulty in receiving the testimony of 
observers arising from the language used. The same word 
often suggests different ideas to different minds, which occa- 
sions misunderstanding. 

§V. The Requisites of this Study are Three- 
fold. 

First, Keen observation to gain definite knowledge of 
facts. 

Second, Definite thinking to gain knowledge of relations 
and to increase the power of thought along these lines. 

Third, The study of the accurate expression of thought to 
increase the vocabulary and the power of expression. Every 
subject has its own vocabulary, which must be made fa- 
miliar. 



CHAPTER VL 
MAN'S PLACE IN THE WORLD. 

Man is greater than a world, than systems of worlds; there is more 
mystery in the union of a soul with the physical than in the creation of a 
universe. — Henry Giles. 

§L Primal Questions. 

1. The Questions. The thoughtful man asks early and 
often, Whence came I? What am I? What is my place in 
the world? Whither am I going? These questions will con- 
tinue till we find their answer. 

2. Story of the Generation of the Earth and the Genesis of 
Man. In the story of the generation of the heavens and the 
earth and the genesis of man, Genesis, chapters 1 and 2 we 
are told that, "In the beginning God created the heavens 
and the earth. And the earth was without form and void," 
that is, all the matter of our solar system was in the gaseous 
form. "And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the 
waters." God was moving to accomplish his purpose in the 
evolution of the earth. He has continued to move from the 
beginning. The order of Creation, as we are told in this 
story, was first the creation of mineral bodies, the earth, the 
sea, the air, and the heavens; then the plants; then the ani- 
mals; and then man, the crowning work of Creation. 

In following this story of the Creation of the world we 
find what expressions of creative force have been made to 
produce the different orders of beings now existing and 
man's place in the world. It begins with 

§11. The Forces Active in Mineral Bodies. 

1. Gravitation. The force of gravitation which draws 
every particle of matter in the universe towards every other 



44 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

particle must have acted from the beginning. It is the lowest 
force, a condition for every other force, the expression of the 
will of the Creator to hold in equilibrium the vast portions of 
matter comprising the universe. 

2. Cohesion. The force of cohesion manifests itself by 
controlling the force of gravitation and unites the molecules 
of every separate body, solid, liquid, or gaseous. It is the 
expression of the will of the Creator for the production of 
the infinite variety and beauty of individual material objects. 

3. Chemical Affinity. The force chemical affinity mani- 
fests itself by controlling the two lower forces of gravitation 
and cohesion, unites elements into compounds, evolving light, 
heat, and electricity. It gives the light and heat of the sun 
by the intense combustion which it generates in the sun, 
which makes the earth habitable. It generates the heat of 
the animal body. It gives fire for the working of metals, 
for the generation of steam to impel the locomotive, the 
steam engine, the steamship, the machinery of the factory, 
the motor which sends the street car on its way, and the 
dynamo which generates the electric light for the home and 
the street. It gives the mineral colors with which we deco- 
rate our pottery, furniture, and homes. 

Chemical affinity acting from the beginning, is an ex- 
pression of the will of the Creator for the production of the 
numberless combinations of the elements with their varying 
quahties which fit them for their manifold uses; and for the 
production of the wonderful effects of Ught, heat, and elec- 
tricity which accompany its action. 

4. Mineral Bodies. These three lower and higher forces 
produce mineral bodies — the solid earth, the sea, and the air, 
— but with no living creature to be found on the land, in the 
sea, or in the air. The earth in this state is the condition for 
something higher. 

§111. Forces Active in Plants. 

1. Manifestation of Plant Life. Plant life manifests itself 
by controlling the three lower forces active in mineral bodies, 
reaches down into the mineral soil and takes up mineral mat- 



MAN'S PLACE IN THE WORLD. 45 

ter, reaches up into the air and takes in the gases, and trans- 
forms these elements into the plant cell filled with proto- 
plasm; multiplies these cells into tissues; and forms these 
tissues into the organs, — the root, stem, and leaf of the plant. 
In direct opposition to gravitation, plant life sends the mole- 
cules up into the topmost leaf of the stalwart tree. 

Plant life gives the grass of the field, the waving wheat, 
and the tasseled corn; it plants a flower in every nook and 
cranny, paints the violet and the lily, and perfumes the rose; 
it branches into the graceful willow life, the sturdy oak life, 
the pendent elm life, the ever-green pine life, the towering 
sequoia life, and covers the hills and vales with the forest. 

2. The Plant is an Organism. Plant life forms a body 
with organs, co-ordinates the action of the organs, makes the 
plant an organism, an up and down structure, marked by the 
repetition of similar parts in the root and stem. 

3. The Plant is the Laboratory of the World's Food. The 
plant eats, breathes, and grows from within. It is commonly 
fixed, rooted, takes its food from the earth and air and con- 
verts it into its own living substance which becomes food for 
animals. ' ' The plant is the laboratory in which is prepared 
the food of the world. It stands at the border-land of life. 
On one side is the lifeless mineral, on the other the helpless 
animal" depending on the plant for its food. Ultimately 
every animal, including man, feeds upon the plant. 

4. Reproduction of the Plant. Plant life acting under law, 
starts each plant from the single cell, but always develops 
each after its own kind. It brings the mystery of flower and 
seed, "the marriage of the flowers," by which one life must 
touch another life that the plant may be reproduced. It is 
an expression of the will of the Creator for clothing the earth 
with the marvelous organisms of the plant kingdom. 

5. The Plant Kingdom. Under the united action of the 
forces of gravitation, cohesion, and chemical affinity domi- 
nated by the force nutritive life, the earth brings forth the 
numberless, marvelous plant organisms, each after its kind, 
and with its mineral and plant kingdoms becomes the condi- 
tion for a higher order of life. 



46 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

§IV. Forces Active in Animals, 

1. Manifestion of Animal Life. Animal life manifests 
itself by controlling the four forces active in plants, and con- 
verts the plant tissues into animal tissues and combines these 
tissues into the organs and systems of the animal organism. 

2. Branches of Animal Life. Animal life acts along dif- 
ferent lines branching like a tree, and each branch is per- 
fected after its kind. It evolves v^onderful gradations of 
animal structure and function. It starts with "single celled 
animals as structureless as a drop of jelly, that feel v^^ithout 
nerves, move without muscles, and digest without a stom- 
ach," and moves on with its branches mollusk, insect, fish, 
frog, reptile, bird, to the highest mammal man. 

3. Distinctive Marks of Animals. (1) The animal begins 
in a cell having an albuminous wall, and containing proto- 
plasm, 

(2) Different organs for special work mark the animal. 

(3) Animals feed upon organic compounds formed by 
plants, and could not exist without plants. In the process of 
respiration, plants inhale carbon dioxide and exhale oxygen, 
while animals inhale oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide. 

(4) The tendency of animals is oxidation; that of plants 
is de-oxidation. The nutritive life of the animal is construc- 
tive, its function is growth and propagation. 

(5) The great distinctive mark of animals is sensation 
and voluntary motion. Some animals are stationary, but 
most animals have the power of locomotion. 

(6) The function of the animal life of sensation and 
voluntary motion is communication with the external objects 
which impress the sense organs, and its action is destructive, 
wasting the tissues of the body. 

4. Reproduction of Animals. " While many of the lower 
animals may be reproduced by budding, or by natural divi- 
sion, most, and probably all, are reproduced by the union of 
the sperm cell with the germ cell, and these are from differ- 
ent animals. " 

5. The Animal Kingdom. Under the united action of 



MAN'S PLACE IN THE WORLD. 47 

the forces of gravitation, cohesion, chemical affinity, and 
nutritive Hfe, dominated by animal life, the waters, the 
earth, and the air bring forth the numberless animals, each 
after its kind, with marvelous adaptation to their different 
modes of life, and the earth with its plant and animal king- 
doms becomes the condition for a still higher life. 

§V, Forces Active in Man. 

1. Manifestation of Rational Life. Rational life including 
the intellectual, emotional, moral, and spiritual life of man, 
manifests itself by controlling the five forces active in ani- 
mals, and produces man, an order of being much higher than 
animals. 

2. Distinctive Marks of Man. (1) Man differs from 
animals in his body. "He is clearly two-handed and two- 
footed. He is fitted for an erect posture. He has a perfect 
hand. His hands are free for use. By his hands he controls 
nature, and by his erect position he studies the heavens. No 
animal can do either. His cranium greatly predominates 
over his face. He has a chin." 

(2.) Man differs from animals in his intellectual life. 
He has the power of abstract thought, which the animal has 
not. He uses articulate and written language in the commu- 
nication of his thoughts. He is capable of great progress. 
He uses the lower forces to promote his physical and rational 
development. He uses fire, metals, artificial clothing, invents 
and uses machinery, and buys and sells. He communicates 
with his fellows, distant from him in space and time, by 
written language and by various other means which he is 
able to use. 

(3) He differs in his emotional Hfe. He has the power 
to perceive and appreciate the beautiful in nature and in 
man, which the animal cannot do. 

(4) He differs in moral life. He can discern right and 
wrong, and feels obligation to do the right and refrain from 
wrong doing, which the animal cannot do. 

(5) He differs in spiritual life. ' ' He compares different 
principles of action, and chooses which principle shall rule 



48 THE TEACHERHN MODERN LIFE. 

his life. Here is the great difference between man and 
animals. Man can choose his own supreme end, the brute 
cannot. A brute acts from impulse, and is driven by its con- 
stitution to its end." 

3. Forces in Man. Their Products. Relation of Pro- 
ducts. 

*6. Rational Life. Man. Goal of Creation. 

5. Animal Life. Animals. Condition for Man. 

4. Nutritive Life. Plants. Condition for Animals. 

3. Chemical Affinity. Mineral Bodies. Condition for Plants. 

2. Cohesion. 

1. Gravitation. 

* Read upwards. 

Gravitation, cohesion, and chemical affinity acting as 
lower and higher forces produce mineral bodies. 

Nutritive life added to the forces active in mineral bodies 
and controlling these forces, produces plants, which feed on 
mineral matter and form organic compounds for the food of 
animals. 

Animal life, added to the forces active in plants and con- 
trolHng these forces, produces animals, which feed on plants, 
and man uses the animals for food, clothing, motive power, 
and other purposes. 

Rational life, added to the forces active in animals and 
dominating these forces, produces man, the goal of creation. 

4. Man's Place in the World. Rational life enables man 
to comprehend all that is below him, and to bring it under his 
control. He is the goal towards which all these added mani- 
festations of infinite power in the creation, were tending. 
He has the highest place in the creation, the place oj domin- 
ion. The six forces are all active in him and bring him into 
sympathy with the whole creation. They make all things a 
condition for him. 

5. Higher and Lower Forces. We see that the higher 
force reveals itself only as it overmasters the lower, which 
fact indeed runs up through the various grades of organiza- 
tion. Man stands between nature and God, fitted to be a co- 
worker with Him. Harmony of the whole being of man with 
God is the culmination of man's life. 



MAN'S PLACE IN THE WORLD. 49 

§VI. The Elements of Human Nature. 

L A Nature. We eat food and immediately the animal 
nutritive life acts spontaneously to digest and assimilate the 
food. Here is a uniform necessitated activity v^hich differs 
from all others. A nature is a uniform necessitated activity 
which can be distinguished from all others. 

2. Natures of Man. (1) The physical nature of man is 
the uniform necessitated activity of the animal-nutritive life 
to build and nourish the organism and incite locomotion. 

(2) The intellectual nature is the uniform necessitated 
activity of thinking. 

(3) The emotional nature is the uniform necessitated 
activity of feeling which accompanies thinking. 

(4) The moral nature is the uniform necessitated acti- 
vity of feeling obligation to do right and refrain from doing 
wrong and the feeling of approbation or guilt after the act. 
Choice either in accord with, or in opposition to, the sense of 
obligation is a moral act. 

3. The Soul. In the two-fold view of man he is spoken 
of as body and mind or soul. In the three-fold view of man 
Paul speaks of him as spirit and soul and body in which the 
spirit seems to be within the soul. 

4. The Spirit. Every nature is a necessitated activity. 
With choice comes freedom. Man knows the right and the 
wrong. He is free as to which he will choose. Without 
freedom there can be no choice. Man originates choice and 
action, he is a cause. As an intelligent, free, moral cause he 
is in the image of God, he is a spirit. As a spirit he is above 
his natures, he has indirect control of their products. 

5. Forces in Man. Natures. Function. 

( Spirit. Decides choice, character. 

^^ P .. , rWilHng J Moral nature. Bids make right choice. 

T -fp "^ -\ Feeling, j Emotional nature. Seeks beauty. 
^Thinking. ^Intellectual nature. Seeks truth. 
5. Animal Life. f 

4. Nutritive Life. | 

3. Chemical Affinity. ■{ Physical nature. Builds and nourishes the body. 
2. Cohesion. | 

1. Gravitation. i^ 

* Read upwards. 



50 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

§ VII. The Earth as the Home of Man. 

1. Man's Home in This Life. The earth was made for 
the home of man in this Hfe in which he is to be educated for 
the life beyond the present. The earth is adapted to the 
development of man, it furnishes incentives to the exertion 
of all his powers; it is beautiful and grand. The alternation 
of day and night, — periods of activity and rest, -the chang- 
ing sky, the mighty waters, the majestic mountain peaks, 
the vast forests, the myriads of flowers, the hosts of animals 
that move in the waters, upon the earth, and through the 
air, and the succession of seasons with all their gifts, are all 
and each tokens of God's loving thought for his children in 
the home he has made for them in this life. 

2. God is in Our Home. He is our Father in whom we 
Hve, as the branch in the vine. We find with the Psalmist 
that "The earth is the Lord's and the fullness thereof. The 
sea is His, and He made it. The heavens declare the glory 
of God and the firmament showeth His handiwork. The law 
of the Lord is perfect restoring the soul." We find that the 
laws of life are God's laws. That "all truth is really God's 
truth." That all science is the re- thinking of God's thoughts. 
That ' ' all beauty is really a manifestation of the perfection 
of God." That "all goodness is the goodness of God." 

One cannot work out his own life unless he has a just 
appreciation of the world in which he lives? And we can- 
not educate the child except we bring him into just relation 
with his ivhole environment and its Author? 



CHAPTER VII. 
THE STUDY OF THE BODY. 

The human body is a study for one's whole life.— i?. W. Beecher. 

§ I. The Body as a Whole. 

1. Carlyle Says, "We touch heaven when we lay our 
hand upon a human body. This sounds much like a flourish 
of rhetoric; but it is not so. If well meditated, it will turn 
out to be a scientific fact; the expression, in such words as 
can be had, of the actual truth of the thing. We are the 
miracle of miracles, the great inscrutable mystery of God. 
We cannot understand it, we know not how to speak of it; 
but we may feel and know, if we like, that it is verily so." 

2. The Body. A sound body is the basis of an efficient 
life. The body is not merely the changing matter of which 
it may be composed at any given moment, but "the perma- 
nent, invisible, automatic, selecting, and arranging animal- 
nutritive life, which begins with us and goes on with us to 
the end, building and nourishing the organism " and keeping 
its identity amid its everchanging material, leaving the mind 
free to perform its function. 

3. Relation of the Body to the Mind. ' ' The human body, 
filled with life, the features radiant with intelligence and 
love, would realize the highest conception that man can form 
of the power of the material, both to veil and to reveal the 
spiritual." It is a fit dwelling for that immortal spirit which 
is made in the image of God, and it is a perfect instrument 
through which the mind finds expression and holds inter- 
course with the external word. 

4. ^A/hy Study the Body. The study of the body is an 
essential element of the teacher's preparation, both for his 



52 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

own perfection and that of his pupil, who is to be in constant 
training for the intelligent care and command of the body as 
the condition for the best expression of himself in all the 
relations of his life. Every one needs to keep in mind the 
prominent facts concerning the normal action of the systems 
of the body. Body and mind must act together, their study 
should go on together. 

5. The consideration of the subject in this chapter 
assumes the previous study of Physiology. We shall consider 
briefly the function and hygiene of the nutritive systems 
which build and nourish the body; and the same of the ani- 
mal systems of sensation and voluntary motion, with the 
purpose to emphasize the requisites for the intelligent care 
and command of the body as the instrument of the mind. 

6. Plan of the Body. The body as a whole consists of a 
vertical, longitudinal, bony, curved axis, with the cranial 
cavity at the top of the axis containing the brain; the spinal 
canal behind the axis containing the spinal cord; a large 
cavity in front of the axis in two compartments, the thorax 
inclosing the heart and lungs, and the abdomen inclosing the 
digestive and reproductive organs; the upper limbs attached 
to the ribs, which connect with the upper part of the axis, 
and the lower limbs attached to the pelvic bones, which con- 
nect with the lower part of the axis. This frame-work is 
composed of more than two hundred bones freely articulat- 
ing, and is covered with more than five hundred muscles con- 
nected with this bony frame-work, and numberless nerves 
distributed upon these muscles, and stimulating them to 
co-ordinate action, 

§11. The Nutritive Systems. 

The Nutritive Systems have a three-fold function: the 
introduction of food; its conversion into tissue; and the 
removal of the worn out tissue. 

1. The Digestive System. This system receives the food 
and prepares from it the materials which are to nourish the 
body. The hygiene of this system is most important, because 
it is the base of supply for the whole body. 



THE STUDY OF THE BODY. 53 

(1) In quality, the food should be simple, without 
great variety; nutritious, containing the elements needed 
by all parts of the body; bulky, having innutritious matter 
mingled with the nutritious to give healthful exercise to the 
intestinal canal, which is between five and six times the 
length of the body, and needs full exercise to secure its health- 
ful action; and the food should be properly cooked. 

(2) The quantity of food taken should be proportioned 
to the needs of the body occasioned by action and waste. Too 
much food clogs the body and clouds the mind. An insuffi- 
cient supply diminishes the vigor of both body and mind. 

(3) The food should be thoroughly masticated. The 
alkaline saliva mingled with the food by thorough mastica- 
tion is the normal stimulus of the gastric glands of the 
stomach in secreting the acid gastric juice. If the mastica- 
tion is imperfect it hinders the chymification of the food, and 
often leads to indigestion and fermentation in the stomach. 
Drink should not be used to wash down the food into the 
stomach. It may be taken after the full mastication. If 
one cannot take time to masticate his food he should postpone 
eating until he can use the proper time for it. 

(4) The food should be eaten when the body is compar- 
atively at rest, so that the digestive system shall be properly 
supplied with blood and nervous energy. The intervals 
between eating should be long enough for a rest of the diges- 
tive system after the digestion of the meal. Keeping the 
digestive system continually at work will sooner or later 
work its ruin. 

(5) Vigorous physical exercise is essential to the 
healthy action of the digestive system. Cheerfulness is 
indispensable to good digestion. These conditions of health 
are dependent upon the good judgment and will of the indi- 
vidual, hence, he is mainly responsible for good digestion. 
Violation of the conditions of good digestion is a sin. 

2. The Absorbent System takes from the digestive sys- 
tem the chyle prepared for nourishing the body, and the 
lymph from the tissues, and conveys them to the blood in the 
circulatory system. The hygiene of this system depends 



54 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

upon the healthy action of the digestive system and physical 
exercise. 

3. The Circulatory System conveys the blood, which con- 
tains the nutriment, to every tissue of the body and receives 
into the blood the waste tissue. 

(1) The hygiene of this system depends upon the free- 
dom of action of the circulatory organs. Free circulation 
forbids wearing tight boots and shoes and gloves, or tight 
clothing about any part of the body. 

(2) All parts of the body should be kept at such tem- 
perature that the blood vessels shall not be contracted by 
cold. The clothing should protect the whole person from 
sudden and severe changes of temperature. 

(3) Vigorous physical exercise and a cheerful state of 
mind are essential to good circulation. 

4. The Respiratory System supplies oxygen for the puri- 
fication of the blood, which is indispensable to life and health. 

(1) The hygiene of this system depends upon a constant 
supply of pure air without which it is impossible to keep the 
blood pure. 

(2) The respiratory organs must have free and full 
action. This is apparent from their action in breathing. 
Any restriction of the free and full action of the respiratory 
muscles is suicidal. Health forbids absolutely the wearing of 
tight jackets, 

(3) Physical exercise in the open air promotes health- 
ful respiration by increasing the action of the respiratory and 
circulatory organs. An erect carriage of the body is essen- 
tial to full respiration. Good breathing is a primary condition 
for good vocal expression. 

5. The Secretory System secretes special fluids for the 
lubrication of the organs and for digestion. 

(1) Health in connection with this system, depends 
upon a sufficient supply of good blood, a proper amount of 
physical exercise, and cheerfulness, that there may be the 
normal amount of these fluids. 

6. The Excretory System removes the waste products of 
the body through the action of the lungs, the skin, the kid- 



THE STUDY OF THE BODY. 55 

neys, and the intestinal canal. They poison the blood if 
retained. 

(1) The conditions of health in relation to this system 
are sufficient physical exercise, very much depends on this; 
cleanliness of the skin and of the clothing worn next the 
skin, and the regular evacuation of the excretions. Irregu- 
larity in the evacuation of the waste matter deranges the 
action of the whole body and depresses the mind. 

(2) The function of these six systems working together 
is to build and nourish the body, and keep it in tune as the 
instrument of the mind. 

§ III. The Animal Systems of Sensation and Mo- 
tion. 

The animal systems of sensation and voluntary motion 
are the medium through which the mind communicates with 
the external world. 

1. The Osseous System. (1) Structure. This system 
is composed of more than two hundred firm bones, tipped 
with elastic cartilage, articulating freely, and bound together 
by strong ligaments, thus forming many joints, which facili- 
tates the greatest variety of movement. 

The primary part of the osseous system is the spinal 
column, composed of twenty-six bones, called the vertebrae, 
piled one upon the other, with cushions of cartilage between 
them, so as to give a compound curve, which secures an 
elastic movement of the column vertically. 

The skull is balanced upon the top of this column, and 
holds and protects the brain. The spines, extending from 
the sides of the vertebrae backward form the spinal canal, 
which contains and protects the spinal cord. 

Twelve ribs on each side are attached to the spines upon 
the upper part of the spinal column. The ribs are united in 
front by cartilage with the breast bone, forming the cavity 
of the chest, or thorax, which contains the heart and lungs. 
The spinal column, skull, and ribs are called the axial skeleton. 

A collar bone and shoulder blade are attached to the 
upper part of the axial skeleton on each side, to which the 



56 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

upper limbs are attached by ball and socket joints. Two 
pelvic bones, one on each side, are firmly attached to the 
lower end of the spinal column. They come together in front 
and form the pelvic basin, to which the lower limbs are 
attached by deep ball and socket joints. 

The pelvic basin, with the muscular walls between it and 
the thorax, forms the cavity of the abdomen, which con- 
tains the digestive and reproductive organs and the kidneys. 
The two lateral halves of the osseous system are symmetrical. 

(2) This osseous skeleton has a dual structure, being 
composed of mineral matter and gelatinous animal matter. 
If the skeleton be subjected to great heat, the gelatinous 
animal matter will be consumed, leaving the mineral skele- 
ton. If the skeleton be put into a bath of hydrochloric acid 
solution, the mineral part will be taken away, leaving the 
gelatinous animal skeleton. 

(3) The function of the osseous system is to protect the 
vital organs in the skull and spinal column, and in the thorax 
and abdomen; to support the other parts of the body, and to 
furnish leverage for the movement of the limbs and the 
trunk. 

(4) The health of the osseous system requires good 
blood and proper physical exercise. 

2. The Muscular System. (1) The muscles by their 
contraction and relaxation, with the tendons by which they 
are attached to the bones, move the framework, and its joints 
and levers, and give roundness and shapeliness to the body. 
They help to enclose cavities, as the mouth and abdomen, 
and to hold the bones together at the joints. The muscles of 
the body number more than five hundred. 

' ' They are by weight about forty- three per cent, of the average 
adult male human body. They expend a large fraction of all the kinetic 
energy of the adult body, which a recent estimate places as high as one- 
fifth. The cortical centers for the voluntary muscles extend over most 
of the lateral psychic zones of the brain, so that their culture is brain 
building. In a sense they are organs of digestion, for which function they 
play a very important role. Muscles are in a most intimate and peculiar 
sense the organs of the will. They have built all the roads, cities, and 
machines, in the world, written all the books, spoken all the words, and, 



THE STUDY OF THE BODY. 57 

in fact done everything that man has accomplished with matter. Tf they 
are undeveloped or grow relaxed and flabby, the dreadful chasm between 
good intentions, and their execution is liable to appear and widen." 

— G. Stanley Hall. 

(2) The muscles vary in form, size, and length, accord- 
ing to their position and work. The two lateral halves of the 
muscular system are symmetrical. Most muscles are paired 
off; for example, the biceps muscle in front of the humerus, 
which flexes the elbow, and the triceps muscle back of the 
humerus, which extends the elbow. There is a similar 
arrangement in the lower limbs. Antagonistic muscles, like 
those mentioned, usually contract alternately. If, as in con- 
vulsions, they contract at the same time, the body is made 
rigid. 

(3) The fundamental muscles and movements are those 
of the trunk and large joints, neck, back, hips, shoulders, 
knees, and elbows. "Their activities are few, mostly simul- 
taneous, alternating, and rythmic, as of the legs in walking. 

(4) " The accessory movements are those of the hand, 
tongue, face, and articulatory organs, and these may be con- 
nected into a large and greatly diversified series, as those 
used in writing, talking, and piano playing. These smaller 
muscles for finer movements come into function later, and 
are chiefly associated with psychic activity, which plays upon 
them by incessantly changing their tension, if not causing 
actual movements." 

(5) The function of the muscles is to move by their eon- 
traction all parts of the body, and to give expression to 
thought, feeling, and will. 

(6) The health of the muscles depends upon the supply 
of good blood, and properly regulated exertion of them. 
Vigorous walking is a healthful exercise, and is always avail- 
able. 

3. The Nervous System acts upon the other systems in 
some unexplained manner to excite or modify the functions 
peculiar to them. It controls the action of every organ in 
the body, so that each one acts with every other for the good 
of the whole at the right time and in the right direction. It 



68 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

is the medium through which the external world acts upon 
the mind and through which the mind acts upon objects 
external to itself. 

(1) Definitions: The nerve cells which compose the ner- 
vous system are cells set apart to command the action of the 
other cells of the body. Each of these cells is an individual 
whole to which scientists have given the name "neuron." 
The neuron has three parts, the gray cell-body which has a 
nucleus, numerous short arms of the cell-body called ' ' dend- 
rites, " and one long arm of the cell-body called an "axon," 
which is a microscopic thread extending from the cell-body as 
a center to the surface where it receives impressions, or to 
the tissue which it stimulates. No neurons are added after 
birth. The dendrites may increase in number on the differ- 
ent cells. The axon grows in length as the child grows. 

A nerve center is any portion of gray nervous matter 
consisting of cells of various forms and sizes intermingled 
with nervous filaments. The cell-bodies of the neurons are 
bunched together in masses forming large nerve centers. 

A nerve is a bundle of microscopic white threads— axons 
— each running from a central nerve cell to the cells of the 
body, invested with a layer of fibrous tissues in which run the 
blood vessels which feed the nerves. The axons of the cell- 
bodies which are massed in centers form bundles of white 
fibers called nerves. 

The primary bundles of nerves may be united into 
larger bundles extending from the nerve centers; and when 
the larger bundle running to any part of the body, as the 
arm or leg, divides and sub-divides it is by one of the smaller 
bundles taking a different direction. The bundle divides 
into axons when it reaches its destination. 

The axons are continuous from center to terminal. Each 
axon acts independently of the other. One transmits an 
impression from without to its center, and another transmits 
nervous force from the center to the tissue which is to be 
moved. Each transmits only in one direction. 

The axons which transmit influences from the cells of 
the body to the nerve centers often produce sensation hence 



THE STUDY OF THE BODY. 59 

are called sensory nerves. Those which transmit orders for 
action from the centers to the cells of the body are called 
motor nerves. 

(2) Kinds of tissue. The nervous system consists of 
two kinds of tissue, the gray vesicular tissue, and the white 
fibrous tissue. "The gray matter is found in the central 
parts of the spinal cord, at the base of the brain in isolated 
masses, and is also spread out as a continuous layer on the 
external portions of the cerebrum and cerebellum. It also 
constitutes the substance of all the ganglia of the sympa- 
thetic division of the system." 

' ' The white fibrous matter constitutes the whole of the 
substance of the nervous trunks and branches, and is found 
in large quantities on the exterior of the spinal cord, and 
interior of the cerebrum and cerebellum." 

(3) The main nerve centers are the cerebrum (the large 
brain), the cerebellum (the small brain), and the medulla 
oblongata, all within the skull, and the spinal cord, which 
together are called the cerebrospinal center. Twelve pairs 
of cranial nerves start from the brain. These are nerves of 
special sense, motor nerves, and sensitive nerves, which are 
distributed over the fa6e, tongue, neck, and to some of the 
vital organs in the thorax and abdomen. 

{If) The spinal cord is a soft white cylinder of nervous 
tissue continuous with the brain, about half an inch in diam- 
eter and hung in the spinal tube. It is made up of a central 
mass of gray matter surrounded by white matter. The gray 
matter is made up of nerve cells from which nerve fibers 
extend both to the brain and to the cells of the body. The 
white matter is composed of nerve threads which connect 
the cells of the cord with the brain and with the cells of 
the body. 

(5) Spinal nerves. The spinal cord gives off thirty-one 
pairs of spinal nerves, each nerve about the size of a quill 
tooth pick, which come out of the holes between the spines 
on each side of the spinal column. Each of these sixty-two 
nerves is made up of two roots, the posterior sensory root on 
which there is a ganglion, and the anterior motor root, 



60 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

which join each other before they come out of the backbone 
through the hole. These spinal nerves are distributed to the 
trunk and limbs. Every message of every kind that goes to 
the brain from the body travels upward through the poster- 
ior sensory root. Every message of every kind that goes to 
any part of the body from the brain travels downward 
through the anterior motor root. 

(6) The cerebrospinal division is the brain, the spinal 
cord, and the spinal nerves. These are the nerves of animal 
life. They co-ordinate the intellectual, sensitive, respiratory, 
and locomotive functions. This division is symmetrical in its 
lateral halves, as the organs are over which it presides. 

(7) The sympathetic division of the nervous system 
consists of bunches of nerve cells called ganglia and both 
sensory and motor nerves which follow the course of the arte- 
ries. On each side of the front of the backbone is a row of 
twenty-four ganglia extending from the skull to the coccyx. 
Four of these ganglia connect with some of the cranial 
nerves. Each ganglion is connected by nerves with its 
neighbor above and its neighbor below. Each is also con- 
nected by a sensory and a motor nerve with the centers of 
the spinal cord. The cells of the spinal cord send impulses 
to the ganglia and they in turn distribute them to the arte- 
ries and glands and organs of the chest and the abdomen. 
The ganglia controls the contraction and dilation of the arte- 
ries, the peristalsis of the intestines, the secretions of the 
glands, and the growth of the cells of the body. The nerves 
from the ganglia run mainly along the course of the large 
arteries. 

(8) Solar plexus. Upon the aorta and its branches in 
the chest and the abdomen, nerves and small ganglia form 
intricate networks, each called a plexus. Just back of the 
stomach is a large plexus called the solar plexus, whose 
nerves supply the muscles of the organs of the abdomen. A 
plexus within the heart controls the action of the heart. 

(9) Nerves of nutritive life. The nerves distributed 
from these series of ganglia are distributed to the organs of 
the nutritive systems over which the will has no direct con- 



THE STUDY OF THE BODY. 61 

trol, and are called the nerves of the nutritive life. This 
division of the nervous system is caMed the sympathetic 
division because the parts connected by these nerves feel 
together. 

(10) There are three kinds of nerve centers. First, those 
which send forth nervous force when no impression is 
received from without the center. These are called auto- 
matic nerve centers. The nerve center which excites the ac- 
tion of the heart is an example of this kind. Second, centers 
which unconsciously receive a stimulus through a sensory 
nerve, and send out nervous force through a motor nerve. 
These are called reflex centers. If the toe of one asleep be 
pricked, the sensory nerve carries the impression to one of 
the lower spinal ganglia, which sends out nervous force 
through the motor nerve to the muscles which move the foot, 
and the toe is withdrawn without any consciousness of the 
act on the part of the sleeper. The reflex centers are the 
ganglia of the sympathetic system, the spinal cord, the 
medulla oblongata, and the cerebellum. Third, those centers 
whose action is excited by some mental activity. The mind 
sends an order to the nerve center for all voluntary motions. 
These are called conscious centers. They lie in the cerebrum. 

(11) The function of the automatic and reflex centers is 
to relieve the mind of all care of the involuntary processes 
and movements. The mind, through the connection of these 
automatic and reflex centers with the cerebrum, is able to 
exert considerable influence over the involuntary activities. 

(12) Nerve habit. Every time a nerve center acts in a 
certain way, it tends to act in that way more easily, thus a 
nerve habit is formed. For this reason many acts at first 
difficult to perform are, after much practice, almost uncon- 
sciously performed. The act of walking is an example. 

(13) Nerves of sense. The nerves of sense are special 
nerves whose centers are in the cerebrum. They are called 
special nerves because the endings of each class can be 
excited only in a particular way. 

The nerves of sense of touch are the myriad sensory 
nerves which have their endings in the skin which are im- 



62 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

pressed by the body in contact with the cuticle over the 
nerves. 

The special nerves of the sense of sight are the sensory 
nerves w^hich form the retina of the eye, v^hich are impressed 
by the impact of light. 

The special nerves of the sense of hearing are the sen- 
sory nerves v^hose endings are on the lining membrane of 
the inner ear, w^hich are impressed by the impact of the 
vibrations of matter. 

The special nerves of the sense of taste are the sensory 
nerves whose endings are upon the upper surface of the 
tongue and on the soft palate, which are impressed by the 
impact of soluble solids and fluids. 

The special nerves of the sense of smell are the sensory 
nerves whose endings are on the lining membrane of the 
nostrils, which are impressed by the impact of volatile parti- 
cles. 

The sensorium. Each sense has a different part of the 
cerebrum for its center. The sense centers are united by 
nerve fibers. Collectively they are called the sensorium. 
The nervous system is a larger sensorium. 

{IJf) The function of the nerve centers is to receive im- 
pressions and send out nervous force. 

{15) The sole function of nerves is to transmit impres- 
sions and nervous force. 

{16) The cerebrum is the conscious center through which 
the mind acts. We can have special sensations only as the 
impressions on the nerves extend to the cerebrum. 

{17) The function of the cerebellum is to co-ordinate the 
movements of the voluntary muscles. 

{18) The medulla oblongata is the center for seven pairs 
of the cranial nerves, and for the nerves which control the 
muscles concerned in respiration. 

(1.9) The spinal cord, in its gray matter, is a center for 
unconscious movements, and its white matter transmits ner- 
vous impressions to, and nervous force from, the brain. 

{20) The function of the sympathetic division is to con- 



THE STUDY OF THE BODY. 63 

trol the involuntary processes of the nutritive systems, and 
the other organs over which it presides. 

(21) Sensation is the state of mind which comes when 
the sensoriuTYi is affected. 

{22) The function of all the other systems are dependent 
upon the nervous system; nervous energy is needed in nutri- 
tion and motion and in every exertion of the mind. The 
amount of energy which the brain puts forth is shown by the 
fact that, while the brain is usually about one-fortieth the 
weight of the body, it receives about one-fifth of the volume 
of the blood. 

{23) The health of the nervous system depends upon the 
healthy action of all the nutritive systems, a full supply of 
nourishment, a cheerful and vigorous mental activity, and a 
regular and sufficient amount of sleep, "tired nature's sweet 
restorer." 

4. Tegumentary System. The function of the skin is to 
cover and protect the body. It is directly connected with 
most of the other systems. It acts as an organ of sensation, 
of secretion, of excretion, of absorption and as regulator of 
animal temperature. This intimate connection with the other 
systems makes its normal action a matter of great import- 
ance to the health of the body. 

Cleanliness of the skin and of the garments worn next to 
it are indispensable conditions of health. An even tempera- 
ture of the skin is essential to the proper performance of its 
functions. 

5. Assimilation. The conversion of the prepared mate- 
rial in the blood into the various kinds of living tissue seems 
to be made in connection with the capillaries. 

6. Calorification. The generation of the heat of the body 
seems to be produced by the chemical action which accom- 
panies assimilation and the destruction of the tissues. The 
generation of heat is most where there is the highest degree 
of activity. This excess of heat is distributed by the circula- 
tion of the blood to parts having a lower temperature. When 
the temperature of the whole body is raised by vigorous 
exertion, the heat is reduced by the evaporation of the liquid 



64 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

portion of the sensible perspiration upon the surface of the 
skin. By this distribution and regulation of heat, the inte- 
rior of the body is kept at a uniform temperature of 98.6° F., 
which is a vital condition of health. 

7. Relation of the Systems. The nutritive systems build 
and repair the body; they are lower systems; their action is 
involuntary; they are placed in the cavities of the body; 
they are unsymmetrical. 

The animal systems are built up as instruments of the 
mind in thought, feeling, and action; they are higher sys- 
tems; their action is chiefly voluntary; they have their organs 
in pairs making the lateral halves of the body symmetrical. 

8. The Reproductive System is for the perpetuation of 
the race, and involves the sexual relation which is so univer- 
sal and controlling in the structure of the organized bodies. 
It requires intelligent control. Parents and teachers should 
be well informed concerning its legitimate use, should faith- 
fully guard their children against its abuse, and should teach 
them to obey the laws of life and health relating to this sys- 
tem. 

9. Adaptation of the Body. The human body is marvel- 
ous in its adaptation to the needs of the mind. It is the 
highest handiwork of the Creator, perfect in its construction. 
The processes of nutrition are wonderful. We have only to 
take proper food properly masticated into the body when the 
nutritive life involuntarily and immediately proceeds to 
digest it and to send nourishment to every cell and fiber of 
the body. We have a perfect system of drainage for the 
removal of all waste matter with the least possible inconven- 
ience to the mind. 

The animal systems and the organs of the senses are 
marvelous in their perfection as instruments of communica- 
tion with nature and men along the avenues of hfe. The 
pleasure which comes with the proper use of them makes the 
exertion a delight and the pain which comes with their abuse 
is the signal of danger to save us from destruction. The laws 
which govern the forces active in the body are the laws of 
God and no man can escape the penalty of their violation. 



THE STUDY OF THE BODY. 66 

The severity of the penalty for disobedience measures the 
greatness of the blessing of obedience. 

§ IV. The Appetites. 

1. The Appetites Defined. The waste of the body conse- 
quent upon its activity produces the need of food, drink, air, 
and sleep. These needs occasion cravings which impel us to 
seek their supply, that the body may be kept in its normal 
condition. ''The appetites are the cravings of the animal 
nature that have for their object the well-being of the body 
and the continuance of the race." 

2. Action of the Appetites. These cravings are a part of 
our nature, and act with an intensity proportional to the need 
until they are satisfied, then cease to act, until the need 
returns. They have a physical limit. The appetites properly 
regulated, sustain the vigor of life; followed to excess, as 
they may be, they may corrupt and degrade the man to the 
lowest depths. 

3. Artificial Appetites. The artificial appetites, such as 
arise from the abuse of stimulants and narcotics, "often 
bring men into a bondage more absolute and degrading than 
that from any natural appetite. These have all the charac- 
teristics of an appetite except its beneficial effects." 

Teachers should make every possible effort to save their 
pupils from the formation of artificial appetites by teaching 
them to observe the laws of health; by teaching that alcohol 
and narcotics are poisons to the human body and the only 
safe course is to let them alone. 

§V. Principles of Education. 

1. The appetites are strong impelling powers, their 
gratification is pleasurable, and the danger is that they will 
be followed to excess. Hence, the first principle of educa- 
tion: — The pupil must be educated to obey the conditions of 
health and to such control of his appetites as will secure the 
highest well-being of the body. 

2. The mind must make all its manifestations through 
the body, hence, the second principle of educatioTgfMThe 



66 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

pupil must be educated to such command of his body as will 
make it the most efficient instrument for the expression of 
his mind. 

3. Ends to be Sought in the Body. We are to seek 
health as a fundamental condition of life. We are to seek 
strength that we may bring into the work of life the best 
energy we can command. We are to cultivate beauty and 
grace to meet the needs of our natures which cannot be satis- 
fied without these elements. 

' ' The ancient Greeks put health so high as to deify it. 
Hygeia was a goddess, young and smiling and beautiful. We 
are catching glimpses of her laughing face, and ere long we 
shall deify her. It is a part of our sin that we are sick; it is 
apart of our religious duty to be well."— r. T. Hunger. 



CHAPTER VIII. 
THE MIND. DEFINITIONS. INTELLECT. 

It is the mind that makes us rich and happy in what condition soever 
we are. — Seneca. 

§1. What is the Mind? 

1. Mind Defined. When we come to answer this ques- 
tion we have no visible, tangible, material thing which we 
can present to our sense organs and perceive its qualities; 
but we have an object of whose existence and modes of activ- 
ity we are just as certain as we are of the existence and 
quality of any material thing. 

When we think of an object, as a tree, or of a subject, 
as geography, we know that we can think. 

Our thinking of the object or subject awakens an agree- 
able or a disagreeable feeling and we know that we can feel. 

We choose the object which occasions the agreeable feel- 
ing and reject the object which occasions the disagreeable 
feeling and we know that we can choose. 

The mind is the I (the ego) who thinks, feels, and wills. 

Thinking, feeling, willing are mental operations. 

2. The Mind is Self-active. Matter is Inert. The power 
to think manifests itself by thinking; the power to feel mani- 
fests itself by feeling; the power to will manifests itself by 
willing. The mind has the original power to think, feel, and 
will. It originates and puts forth different degrees of force. 
Mind is self -active and the permanent, indivisible cause of 
its own actions. 

Matter is inert, it will continue in a state of rest or of 
motion without change of state, unless the change is pro- 
duced by something outside itself. 



68 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

Mind and matter are radically different. We cannot 
know either in its essence. We know each only by its mani- 
festations. 

§11. Psychology Defined. 

1. Phenomena. If we think of the external objects that 
are in our presence their qualities will appear to the mind. 
If we give attention to the operations of the mind mental 
states will appear. 

A phenomenon is anything which appears to the mind 
as it thinks. 

There are two kinds of phenomena: qualities of material 
objects — material phenomena; mental states — mental phe- 
nomena. 

2. Knowledge. When we compare our idea of the color 
of a blue lily with the known idea of blue color we are con- 
scious of the agreement of the two ideas, and we know the 
lily is blue. When we compare our idea of the color of the 
lily with the known idea red color, we are conscious of the 
disagreement of the two ideas and we know the lily is not 
red. 

Knowledge is the consciousness of the agreement or dis- 
agreement of ideas. 

3. Object of Knowledge. An object of knowledge is that 
of which the mind is knowing. 

4. Definition. Psychology is the knowledge which has for 
its object the phenomena of the human mind. 

These phenomena include thinking, feeling, and willing; 
their relations to one another as activities; and the conditions 
and products of these activities. 

5. Three Modes of Mental Activity. The one indivisible 
mind manifests itself in three different, co-existent modes of 
activity, thinking, feeling, and willing, which we cannot 
separate in the action, which we distinguish in our thought, 
to which we give different names. 

The mind thinking is called Intellect. 
The mind feeling pleasure or pain as it thinks is called 
Sensibility. 



THE MIND. DEFINITIONS. INTELLECT. 69 

The mind choosing as it thinks and feels is called the Will. 

6. The Relation of These Modes. Intellect is the condi- 
tion- for Sensibility, there is no feeling without knowledge. 

These two, Intellect and Sensibility, are the condition for 
the Will, one cannot choose and execute his choice without 
both knowledge and feeling. This is the natural order for a 
rational being. 

Before beginning the study of Intellect we need to define 
some terms in frequent use in the study of mind that we may 
all use them with the same meaning. 

§111. Definition of Terms. 

1. Disposition. Some persons are naturally inclined to 
think of the bright side of things and persons. They are 
hopeful, life is joyous, and the world is growing better. 
Others are naturally inclined to think of the dark side of 
everything. They are despondent, life is somber, and the 
world is growing worse. Some persons are slow in coming 
to a decision to act, others act promptly and with decision. 
This natural tendency to act in a certain way is a Disposi- 
tion. The disposition may facilitate living or it may hinder 
it and have to be struggled against. 

2. Habit. By the frequent repetition of any form of 
mental activity the mind acquires facility in exerting itself 
in that form and acquires an inclination to continue to act in 
that mode. 

Habit is an acquired facility to act in a certain way 
accompanied by an inclination to act in this way. 

"Habit is the deepest law of our nature," says Carlyle, 
Habit must begin to be formed in every line of activity as 
soon as the activity begins. 

Habit is the great economy in our life. When we become 
habituated to an act it almost does itself. 

Habit determines our personality. It is his own habitual 
way of acting which distinguishes one person from another. 

Habit determines character. Habits either good or bad, 
must be formed in early life, and these habits are the basis 
of character. 



70 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

" Sow an act and you reap a habit. 
Sow a habit and you reap a character. 
Sow a character and you reap a destiny." 

3. Law. ' ' A laiv implies a being, exerting force, uni- 
formly, to accomplish an end.'' God is the one law giver. 
The forces and powers active in nature and in man are the 
expressions of his will for the accomplishment of his purpose. 

4. The Law of Things. Gravitation draws every por- 
tion of matter towards every other portion directly as the 
mass of the portion and inversely as the square of the dis- 
tance between the portions. 

Cohesion always unites the molecules of a body in the 
same way for the same kind of matter, as in gold, or in iron. 

Chemical affinity unites elements in definite proportions. 

Plant life always develops germ cells each one after its 
kind. 

Animal life always develops germ cells each one after its 
kind. 

The law of the physical force is the expression of the 
uniform way in ivhich the force is conti'olled in producing 
the end. 

This is the law of things. 

The law of the mental power which acts spontaneously is 
the same as the law of things. For example, the law of the 
association of thoughts is the uniform tendency which the 
recurrence of one associated thought has to excite another. 
The law of this mental power is the expression of the uniform 
way in which the power is controlled in accomplishing an end. 

5- The Law of Persons. The moral and civil laws which 
are for the control of the voluntary action of mental power 
are addressed to persons, who have power to discern right and 
wrong and who feel obligation to do the right and to refrain 
from wrong doing, and who are free to choose whether they 
will obey or disobey the law. For example, the two great 
commandments: "Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with 
all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy mind, 
and with all thy strength; " and "Thou shalt love thy neigh- 
bor as thyself." 



THE MIND. DEFINITIONS. INTELLECT. 71 

Moral and civil laws differ from the law of things, — 
which is the expression of the uniform way in which the 
force is controlled, — in that they are the expression of the 
uniform way in which the power should be controlled. Every 
person should obey the law of love for God and man, but we 
may choose to disobey this law. 

6. Rule. Names of persons should begin with a capital 
letter, is a rule to be observed in writing. 

A rule is a pi^escrihed mode for conduct. Rules are tem- 
porary, laws are permanent. Civil laws are spoken of as 
rules of action, they are of human origin and may be re- 
pealed. The laws of God are permanent. 

7. A Principle. A principle is a law of the mind which 
controls its activity in the acquisition of knowledge and in 
the development of power. 

8. Development. Mental development is the facility 
which the mind acquires in the use of its power by the right 
exertion of its power. 

9. Consciousness. Whenever the mind acts by thinking, 
feeling, or willing it knows that itself is the permanent indi- 
visible I (or ego) which underlies its own operations. This 
knowledge is known as consciousness. 

Consciousness is the knowledge by the mind of itselj as 
the permanent, indivisible subject of its own operation. ' ' 

10. Inferences. First, Since the mind knows itself as the 
subject of its operations, consciousness, as the name indi- 
cates, must accompany every mental act of which we have 
knowledge. 

Second, I must trust my own consciousness; if I cannot 
trust consciousness I cannot trust anything. Consciousness 
cannot deceive one; it must be infallible. 

Third, Since consciousness must accompany every men- 
tal operation which we know, it is not a distinct mode of 
putting forth energy, neither is it under the control of the 
will. 

Fourth, ' * The office of consciousness is to bind all the 
operations of the mind into unity." 

Sub-conscious means partially or feebly conscious, for 



72 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

example, the state of mind in the transition from the waking 
to the sleeping state, or the reverse. Or, it may mean with- 
out consciousness. 

We say we are not conscious during sleep or in a fit of 
fainting. This means that we are not conscious of any men- 
tal activity occasioned by the action of external objects upon 
the sensory nerves. The mind however holds on its way and 
wakes the sense organs in due time, and restores the con- 
nection with the outer world. 

Observations made by Dr. Mosso of the University of 
Turin, Italy, upon the brain of Bertino through a hole in his 
skull, showed that in sound sleep any sound whatever pro- 
duced a throbbing in his brain, which increased with the 
increase of the sound. This action of the brain indicates 
action of the mind during sleep. 

11. Attention. (1) Attention — literally the act of stretch- 
ing to — is keeping the mind fixed upon the object it desires 
to know. It implies an object and the continuity of the con- 
sciousness of the presence of the object. 

(2) The objects of attention are the material and men- 
tal phenomena that come into consciousness. 

(3) Continuance of attention depends upon the degree 
of interest the object awakens in the mind. An unattractive 
object may become interesting by giving attention to it until 
we become acquainted with it, or with its relation to other 
things in which we are interested. 

Continuance of attention also depends upon strength of 
will in concentrating thought upon the object, and in over- 
coming distractions. Sights and sounds without, and thoughts 
and feehngs within are constantly soliciting the mind. The 
attractive object favors attention to itself, but opposes atten- 
tion to less interesting objects. A beautiful melody sung in 
our hearing overcomes the strongest effort for attention to a 
lesson, so does a severe pain. Distractions must be reduced 
to the minimum, and the strongest incentive to attention 
must be secured. 

(4) Power to attend is acquired by requiring the mind 
to perceive distinctly external objects which are in its pre- 



THE MIND. DEFINITIONS. INTELLECT. 73 

sence and to think definitely of what is in the mind. And by 
requiring the mind to transfer attention quickly from one 
object of thought to another. 

(5) Attention implies that its object should excite the 
desire of knowledge; that it should awaken interest; that its 
relation to other objects should be considered; that distrac- 
tions should be avoided; that the entire will power should be 
exerted; that the act should be repeated and the habit kept 
up. Attention is most readily secured when body and mind 
are vigorous. 

(6) Attention of the child. The child in beginning a 
systematic course of study in school finds it very diflEicult to 
attend to any one object. A multitude of objects are before 
him and he is inclined to pass quickly from one to another. 
He cannot deal with ideas apart from objects. He needs to 
have the object before him and to have the teacher to inter- 
est him in the object to which he is to give attention. Gradu- 
ally he gains in power to attend. 

(7) How secured. The attention of the child is to be 
secured "by engaging his sympathy, by interesting him, by 
finding him something to do, by rendering the object to 
which we wish him to give his mind more attactive than his 
surroundings." His effort to attend should be continued 
only so long as interest can be kept up. 

Consciousness and attention are the primary conditions 
for acquiring knoivledge. 

12. An Idea. A red rose is before me. I am conscious of 
its presence, and the image of this visible thing is the imme- 
diate object of my consciousness. 

Again, as I think of the rose I am conscious of a sensa- 
tion of sight, and of the perception of its color. This color, a 
quality of the rose, is the immediate object of my conscious- 
ness. 

Again, as I think of the action of my mind in relation to 
the rose I am conscious of the act of seeing, and seeing, an 
attribute of the mind, is the immediate object of my con- 
sciousness. 



74 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

When we think of any external object as a whole, or of 
any quality of the external object, or any attribute of the 
mind, the immediate object of our consciousness is the image 
of the thing, or the quality, or the attribute of the mind. 

(1) An idea is the immediate object of consciousness 
when we think. 

(2) ' ' The two distinctive marks of an idea are, first, an 
idea is the immediate object of consciousness when we think; 
second, an idea is named by a single word," 

(3) The presence of the proper objects of thought is the 
occasion of ideas in the mind. 

(4) The first ideas of either objects or qualities must 
be acquired from the objects in the presence of the mind. 

13. A Word. When we formed the idea of the rose, we 
associated the idea with the word rose. When we formed 
the idea of the color of the rose we associated the idea with 
the word red. When we formed the idea seeing we asso- 
ciated the idea with the word seeing. 

A word is a vocal sound or a character which is the 
sign of an idea. 

The use of the word is to hold the idea by association so 
that the recurrence of the word to the ear or the eye shall 
suggest the idea. 

14. Thinking. I perceive the color of a pink and compare 
it with the known color crimson; the two ideas agree and I 
think the pink is crimson. I compare the color of the pink 
with the known color scarlet; the two ideas disagree and I 
think the pink is not scarlet. 

Defi'Yiition. Thinking is the act of comparing ideas to 
find their agreement or disagreement. 

"Our thinking depends upon our ideas, and we never 
think beyond them, nor contrary to them." 

We comprehend a thought only as we know all the ideas 
of which it is composed. Each word of the sentence that 
expresses the thought expresses an idea. 

15. Elementary Knowledge. Knowledge has been defined 
as the consciousness of the agreement or disagreement of our 



THE MIND. DEFINITIONS. INTELLECT. 76 

ideas. We depend upon our thinking for our knowledge of 
the relations of ideas. 

Knowledge is also that which is known as fact or truth. 
The dog is black is a fact. Dogs are barking animals is a 
general truth. A fact is that which is. Our first knowledge 
is of the facts of the existence and qualities of individual 
objects, which are known by direct observation, or directly 
through consciousness. The language of facts consists of 
the names of things and of descriptions of the phenomena of 
things. The knowledge of facts is Elementary Knowledge. 

16. Scientific Knowledge. By thinking of the qualities we 
have perceived in individual objects, taking the qualities in 
which they are alike, and leaving the qualities in which they 
differ, we consider the qualities found common to the indi- 
viduals observed, common to all the individuals of that kind 
and form a general, abstract idea or concept composed of the 
common qualities; and group in our thought all the individ- 
uals having these common qualities, and thus form a class of 
objects. For example, the class man, the class animal. We 
compare classes and find general truths, for example, man is 
an animal. 

We also consider th'e forces which produced the individ- 
uals of a class. The knowledge of general truths concerning 
classes and forces is Scientific Knowledge. The language of 
scientific knowledge consists of propositions and definitions. 

Elementary knowledge is definite, particular knowledge. 

Scientific knowledge is definite, general knowledge. 

Scientific knowledge depends upon elementary know- 
ledge. 

17. Information. We acquire knowledge of things by our 
own direct observation of them as they are presented to our 
minds. After we have acquired knowledge of things in their 
kind, another observer may tell us, either orally or in writ- 
ing, what he knows of them that we did not know, and give 
us information, or second hand knowledge. If the informer 
reports to us what another observer has told him, he gives 
us second hand information or third hand knowledge. 

Definition. Information is that which another observer 



76 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

tells US that he knows and we did not know, of a kind of 
object known to us. 

Information comes to us in some form of descriptive 
language as we listen to oral statements or read books. 
Unless the learner knows the kind of things of which the 
informer is speaking or writing, he cannot be informed of 
those things, because he does not understand the meaning of 
the words used. Observation by the learner must precede 
reading. 

18. The Book. The book is a record of thoughts. 

Its value in itself is proportional to the amount of truth 
which the record represents. 

Its value to the reader is proportional to his ability to 
interpret the record. 

The ability of the reader to interpret the record is pro- 
portional to his knowledge of the things for which the words 
of the record stand. 

The book helps one to record the ideas he has acquired; 
gives one new combinations of these ideas in the thoughts of 
others; stimulates and directs thinking; increases informa- 
tion; and brings one into the society of other minds. 

The right use of books is of great value. A large part of 
our knowledge is the information which comes from books. 
Objects must come first. The book is secondary in teaching 
and must not be allowed to take the first place. 

§IV. Rational Intuitions of the Intellect. 

1. Intuitive Ideas. We turn now to the study of the 
Intellect, the mind's power to know, the lowest form of 
rational activity. 

We ask first. What are the conditions and products of the 
action of Intellect? 

Second, What operations upon its products can we per- 
form with this power? 

Given the mind which has original power to know and 
we have certain ideas which originate in Intellect, which 
regulate our knowing. 

We begin by knowing; knowing some object. There is 



THE MIND. DEFINITIONS. INTELLECT. H 

the mind which knows and the object which is known. Let 
the object be a book. I grasp the book and I know it as an 
external object. In knowing the book I am certain that I 
am, that the book is. 

To know is to be certain of the existence of the thing 
known, and also to be certain of the existence of the being 
knowing. We begin with certainty. 

The object cannot be known unless it exists; the being 
cannot know unless he exists. These necessary ideas may 
be illustrated. 

Being. In knowing the book the idea being must spring 
in the mind; it does not come from the object through sensa- 
tion, it originates in the mind. The occasion of its springing 
in the mind is the consciousness of knowing an external 
object. This idea being must come with every act of know- 
ing, hence it regulates knowing. 

We have two sources of knowledge, one the external 
world giving a great variety of objects; the other the mind 
itself,' giving the ideas which must spring in it from its 
nature. 

The mind must be certain of existence. 

Space. If I attempt to put my hand where the book is I 
cannot, the book occupies the space. I cannot know the book 
and not know that it is in space. The occasion of the idea 
space springing in the mind is the consciousness of knowing 
a body. The idea space must accompany the perception of 
every material object. 

Time. If I move the book from place to place it takes 
time. The idea time must spring in the mind with every act 
of knowing a change. 

The mind must know changes in time. 

Personal Identity. I cannot remember the book without 
having the idea spring in the mind that the I who remembers 
the book is the same I who perceived the book. The occa- 
sion of the idea personal identity springing in the mind is the 
consciousness of remembering. 

Mental states must be known by the same I. 

Number. As I perceive several books, I cannot distin- 



78 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

guish one from more than one without the idea number 
springing in the mind. The occasion of this idea is the con- 
sciousness of knowing several objects. 
The mind must number objects. 

Difference. I cannot distinguish one book from another 
without having the idea difference come in the mind. The 
occasion of this idea is the consciousness of thinking one 
thing apart from another. 

The mind must distinguish objects by a difference. 
Resemblance. I cannot perceive books of the same kind 
without having the idea resemblance spring in the mind. The 
occasion of this idea is the consciousness of knowing the 
objects. 

The mind must class objects by resemblance. 
Intuitive Ideas. Occasions of Them. 

Being Knowing any object. 

Space Knowing matter. 

Time Knowing changes. 

Personal Identity Knowing mental states. 

Number Knowing objects. 

Difference Knowing objects unlike. 

Resemblance Knowing objects alike. 

2. Intuitive Truths. There are certain propositions 
expressing the relations of these intuitive ideas that must be 
thought true as soon as they are stated. It is impossible to 
think they are not true, for example, the propositions, This 
body is in space, This pendulum swings in time, must be 
thought true as soon as they are stated, as surely as the ideas 
of space and time must spring in the mind. These ideas and 
truths are necessary, hence universal. They regulate our 
knowing. 

They are rational intuitions, the manifestations of Reason 
in Intellect. 



CHAPTER IX. 
THE MIND PRESENTING THE EXTERNAL WORLD. 

" Say not I have a soul; I am a soul, 

And have a body builded to my need 
That I, a soul, may in this great world school, 
Study the Master's works." 

--Mary F. Butts. 

§1. Sensation and Sense Perception. 

Reason in Intellect originates the intuitive ideas Being, 
Space, Time, Personal Identity, Number, Difference, and 
Resemblance, which condition our knowing. All men have 
these ideas. 

1. How Does the Mind Gain Knowledge of the External 
World ? The mind is first conscious of its own states. We 
touch the parts of our own body and are immediately con- 
scious of its existence as an extended whole occupying space. 

The hands, the eyes, the ears, the tongue, and the nos- 
trils, with the sensory nerves attached to them and extending 
to the brain, are the sense organs, or the senses, each per- 
forming its special work. Each sense has its own center in 
the brain and these centers are connected. Collectively they 
are called the sensorium. 

Given the sensorium and an external object impressing 
the sensorium, as when I press the table, and we have a 
state of mind called sensation. The movement in sensation 
is from the external object inward aifecting the mind; sen- 
sation is subjective, the element of feeling. 

Definition. Sensation is the feeling which comes when 
an external object impresses the sensorium. 

Sensation is known by the mind as from the body, as 
produced through the sensorium, and as directing the mind 
to the external object acting upon the sensorium. It is the 



80 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

connecting link between mind and matter. Through the 
sensation we acquire the idea of the existence of the table 
and of its quality of hardness. 

Definition. Sense Perception is the knowledge through 
sensation of the existence and qualities of the external object. 

The movement in perception is from the sensation within 
outward to the external object; it is objective, the element 
of knowledge. 

The mind gains the knowledge of the external world 
through sensation and perception, or through Sense Percep- 
tion. 

2. Sensation and Perception Involve Four Conditions. (1) 
Contact of an external object with the sense organs. The 
only object ever perceived is the object in immediate contact 
with the organ. 

(2) A co-existent sensation and perception occasioned 
by this contact. The sensation and perception both exist 
only as they co-exist. They do not always co-exist with the 
same degree of intensity. 

(3) Conscious attention to the sensation and perception. 

(4) Association of the idea perceived with its name and 
with ideas previously perceived. 

External objects affect the mind through the sense 
organs. The mind goes out through the sense organs to 
study the Master's works. 

We inquire next for the kind of knowledge gained 
through each sense acting by itself. 

§ II. What the Mind Perceives Through Touch 
WITH Pressure. 

1. The Immediate Knowledge of a Body. First. If any 
point of the skin be pricked without any pressure, by a sharp 
needle, we shall be conscious only of a sensation of touch 
without knowing what produced it. We may be touched 
upon any part of the skin. When we touch we use mainly 
the tips of the fingers. 

The muscular sense, the consciousness of sensation aris- 
ing from muscular exertion, acts with the sense of touch. 



THE MIND PRESENTING THE EXTERNAL WORLD. 81 

I clasp an apple in my hand. I am conscious of resis- 
tance to my muscular exertion, and I have immediate know- 
ledge of the existence of a body external to my own through 
the resistance it offers to my muscular effort. 

Touch with pressure gives immediate knowledge of the 
existence of external bodies. 

2. The Necessary Qualities of a Body. We know the 
qualities a body must have by thinking of it as occupying 
space and as being contained in space. 

Since every body must occupy space it must have trinal 
extension; hence it must have form or figure, a quality which 
arises from the limitation of extension; size, a quality which 
arises from the amount of space occupied; divisibilty, a qual- 
ity arising from the fact that an extended whole must be 
susceptible of separation into parts; density, a quality which 
arises from the amount of matter in a body; absolute incom- 
pressibility, a quality which arises from the fact that a body 
cannot be compressed so as to occupy no space; since a body 
must be contained in space, it must have position, a quality 
arising from the fact a body must be somewhere in space; 
and mobility, a quality which arises from the motion of a 
body. These eight qualities are essential to the existence of 
a body. 

3. The Classification of Qualities. Qualities which are 
essential to the existence of a body are classed as Primary 
qualities. 

Qualities which are not essential to the existence of a 
body are classed as Secondary qualities. 

Qualities which are known at once as belonging to a body 
are classed as Objective qualities. 

Qualities which are known at once as a change in self 
are classed as Subjective qualities. 

The Primary and Objective qualities are extension, form 
or figure, size, divisibility, density, absolute incompressibil- 
ity, position, nobility. 

4. Degrees of Resistance. Second. We know through 
touch and pressure the degrees of resistance arising from 
Attraction, Repulsion, and Inertia. 



82 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

First. When we press upon steel it offers a high degree 
of resistance because its particles are held firmly together by 
attraction and we say the steel is hard. When we press upon 
dough it yields readily to pressure because there is a lower 
degree of attraction among its particles, and we say the 
dough is soft, 

When we move the fingers over the surface of broken 
granite it offers a high degree of resistance from attraction 
and we say the broken granite is rough. When we move the 
fingers over the surface of polished granite it offers a low 
degree of resistance from attraction and we call the polished 
granite smooth. 

Some of the relative degrees of attraction known through 
touch and pressure are: 

Hardness and softness. 

Roughness and smoothness. 

Toughness and brittleness. 

Rigidity and flexibility. 

Firmness and fluidity. 

Ductility and inductility. 

Elasticity and inelasticity. 

Second. When we attempt to compress an iron ball into 
a smaller space we are conscious of a high degree of resis- 
tance offered by the force of Repulsion and we say the ball is 
incompressible. When we attempt to compress air in a closed 
vessel there is a lower degree of resistance offered by repul- 
sion and we find the air is compressible. We learn that 
bodies are compressible or incompressible. 

Third. When we catch a ball we are conscious of a 
degree of resistance arising from bringing a body in motion 
into a state of rest. When we attempt to move the wall of 
the house we are conscious of a high degree of resistance 
arising from bringing a body at rest into a state of motion. 
The resisting force in these two cases is Inertia. We learn 
that bodies are movable or immovable. 

Fourth. Secondary-primary qualities. In classifying 
the qualities known as degrees of resistance we may take 
hardness as a type of the class. Hardness whenever known 



THE MIND PRESENTING THE EXTERNAL WORLD. 83 

is known as essential to the body which has it, therein it is 
like primary quahties; but hardness is not essential to some 
bodies, therein it is like secondary qualities. A quality like 
a primary and a secondary quality is called a Secondary-pri- 
mary quality. Hardness is known at once, when known, as 
belonging to the object, therein it is objective; it is known 
also as a change in self, therein it is subjective; hence it is 
called a Subjective-objective quality. What is true of hard- 
ness is true of all the degrees of resistance known through 
touch. They are relative ideas, known in pairs. 



Sense. 




Knowledge. 


QUALITY. 


Touch and 


1. 


Existence of bodies. 


Primary. 
Objective. 


Muscular Sense. 


2. 


Degress of resistance 


Secondary-primary. 






from attraction, re- 


Subjective-objective. 



pulsion, and inertia. 
5. Use of the Hands. Touch with the muscular sense 
gives immediate knowledge of the world of matter, a know- 
ledge of the forces active in bodies, and the uses to which 
these bodies may be put. The hands are the chief instru- 
ments in supplying personal needs; in shaping matter into 
useful and beautiful forms; in making and using tools and 
machinery in all the trades, manufactures, and industries. 
It is of primary importance that the mind should be trained 
to use the hands skilfully. 

§111. What the Mind Perceives Through Sight 
Alone. 

1. Notes on Light and Color by John Tyndall, F. R. S. 

(1) The substance which transmits light is assumed to be of both 
extreme elasticity and extreme tenuiity. This substance is called the 
Luminiferous ether. 

(2) It fills space; it surrounds the atoms of bodies; it extends 
through the humors of the eye. The molecules of luminous bodies are in 
a state of vibration. The vibratious are taken up by the ether, and 
transmitted through it in waves. These waves impinging on the retina 
excite the sensation of light. 

(3) Solar light is found to be composed of an infinite number of 
rays of difi'erent degrees of refrangibility; when such light is sent 
through a prism, its constituent rays are drawn asunder. This act of 
drawing apart is called dispersion. 



84 ^ THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

(4) Some of the waves of ether generated by luminous bodies are 
longer than others. In refracting substances the short waves are more 
retarded than the long ones; hence the short waves are more refracted 
than the long ones. This is the cause of the dispersion. 

(5) The luminous image formed when a beam of white solar light 
is thus decomposed is called the solar spectrum. The solar spectrum 
consists of a series of vivid colors, which, when reblended, produce the 
original white light. Commencing with that which is least refracted, 
we have the following order of colors in the solar spectrum: — Red, 
Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Violet. 

(6) The Color of Light is determined solely by its wave-length. 
The ether waves gradually diminish in length from the red to the violet. 
The length of a wave of red is about ^^^o^y of an inch; that of a wave of 
violet light is about 5^73^00 ^^ ^" inch. The waves which produce the 
other colors of the spectrum lie between these extremes. 

(7 The velocity of light being 192,000 miles, or 12,165,120,000 inches 
per second, if we multiply this number by 39,000 we obtain the number of 
waves of red light in 192,000 miles; the product is 474,439,680,000,000. 
All these waves enter the eye in a second. In the same interval 699 mil- 
lion millions waves of violet light enter the eye. At this prodigious rate 
is the retina hit by the waves of light. 

(8) Natural bodies possess the power of absorbing the light that 
enters them. This power is selective, and hence, for the most part, arise 
the phenomena of color. 

(9) When the light which enters a body is ivholly absorbed the 
body is black; a body which absorbs all the waves equally, but not totally, 
is grey; while a body which absorbs the various waves unequally is 
colored. Color is due to the extinction of certain constituents of the 
white light within the body, the remaining constituents which return to 
the eye imparting to the body its color. 

(10) Bodies of all colors, illuminated by white light, reflect white 
light from their exterior surfaces. It is the light which has plunged to 
a certain depth within the body, which has been sifted there by the elec- 
tive absorption, and then discharged from the body by interior reflection, 
that, in general, gives the body its color. 

2, The Perception of Colors. If rays of light from a 
luminous body fall upon a material body and are reflected 
upon the network of nerves upon the inner coat of the eye 
ball, called the retina, we have a sensation of sight and per- 
ceive a color. 

(1) The color as seen is an idea acquired through a 
sensation of sight. The color is known in consciousness 
only as a change in self, is purely subjective. It is the light 



THE MIND PRESENTING THE EXTERNAL WORLD. 85 

in contact with the retina that we perceive, from which we 
infer the quahty of the distant body which reflects the \ight 
to the eye. The quahty of the distant body is its power to 
modify the light which falls upon it. Colors are the original 
and direct gift of sight. We know colors only through the 
eye because no other sense is impressed by light. A person 
born blind cannot know colors. 

(2) The modifications of light extend from the perfectly 
white sunlight to the blackness of darkness. There are two 
classes of colors: Colors proper, including the colors of the 
solar spectrum; and neutral colors, including the blacks, 
whites, and greys. 

(3) When we see a color, we see surface extension col- 
ored and limited by a surrounding color. This color must 
give the qualities form, size, and number. 

(4) We see the form of extension in three dimensions. 
The light reflected from a spherical surface covers a suflficient 
surface on the retina to indicate a spherical form. A cubical 
body may be so held before the eye that the light reflected 
from the three surfaces forming a solid angle may enter the 
eye at once, thus indicating a cubical form. 

"The two eyes receive images of different forms; these 
are blended by a mental operation into a compound image, 
which education has taught us to associate with the distance 
of the several parts of the object. The effect is that of out- 
standing rehef. " 

(5) Sight gives a knowledge of relative distance. We 
always seem to see colors on something outside of self. A 
color near the eye seems large, if moved farther away it 
appears smaller. By these observations we know whether a 
body is approaching us or receding from us. In this way we 
have an idea of relative distance. 

(6) The color of a body is the kind of light which it 
reflects. Very early in life, by the action of touch and sight, 
we associated the sensation of light with a body which 
reflects the light, and ever after when we see a color we infer 
that there is a body from which the light is reflected to the 
eye, and we say we see a body. 



86 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

3. Through Sight Acting Alone We Know Colors; which 
are secondary and subjective qualities. 

We know through colors, surface extension and volumet- 
ric extension, which give the qualities form, size, number, 
which are primary and objective qualities. 

"Through sight we are able to clothe external objects 
with color, form, size, and proportions." 
Sense. Knowledge. Quality. 

Sight. Color. Secondary and 

Surface Extension and Subjective. 

Volumetric Extension which imply: — 

Form, Size, Number, Distance, Posi- Primary and 

tion, Mobility. Objective. 

4. Sight is the Noblest of the Five Senses. The rays of 
Hght which minister to this sense and the eye which receives 
them are adapted to one another with consummate wisdom 
and perfect skill. 

The eye, a ball and socket about an inch in diameter, 
without change of position lifts its lid and perceives instantly 
the figure of a magnificent cathedral, or all the variety of a 
landscape, or the wide expanse of the ocean, as the light 
shines over all. 

Sight gives an infinite variety of colors, ever changing in 
all their matchless beauty. 

It gives us an infinite variety of forms, irregular, regular, 
symmetrical, simple, complex, through all the range of the 
mineral, plant, and animal kingdoms. 

It gives the unlimited range in size from the microscpic 
cell to the mountain mass, the wide sea, and the vast canopy 
of the heavens. 

It gives the endless series of numbers from the single 
object to the leaves on the trees, the sands on the shore, and 
the stars in the sky. 

It gives the endless combination of color, form, size, and 
number, all that we infer from this combination, and all that 
it suggests to our thought. 

"The light of truth, the light of beauty, and the light of 
goodness comes intp every soul that has the eye to see light, 
and the light shineth more and more unto the perfect day." 



THE MIND PRESENTING THE EXTERNAL WORLD. 87 

"The eye observes only what the mind, the heart, and 
imagination are gifted to see; and sight must be reinforced 
by insight before souls can be discerned as well as manners." 

§IV. What the Mind Perceives Through Hearing 
Acting Alone. 

1. The Perception of Sounds. If a piano string be 
vibrated near us, there is a line of matter extending from the 
string to the auditory nerves, made up of the air, the drum 
head of the ear, the chain of bones in the middle ear, and the 
liquid in the inner ear. This line of matter conveys the 
vibration from the string to the auditory nerves and we have 
a sensation of hearing and perceive a sound which is known 
in consciousness only as a change in self, and is purely sub- 
jective. 

(1) A sound as heard is an idea acquired from a sen- 
sation of hearing. Hearing gives only a knowledge of sounds. 
We know sounds only through hearing. From what body 
the sound comes, from what direction it comes, and what it 
means, we have to learn by experience. 

(2) Sounds are of two kinds, noises and tones. Noise 
is produced by irregular vibrations, as when a load of stones 
is dumped upon the ground. Tones are produced by regular 
vibrations. They differ in pitch, which depends upon the 
frequency of the vibrations; in loudness, which depends upon 
the amplitude of the vibrations; and in quality, which 
depends upon the complexity of the tones. There is an infi- 
nite variety in the quality of tones. 

(3) Hearing does not connect the sensation of hear- 
ing with the vibration of the body which occasioned the sen- 
sation. From early life, we have been accustomed to hold 
the body when struck, and through touch and hearing acting 
together we have associated the sound heard with the vibrat- 
ing body which occasioned the sensation, hence, we say when 
we hear a sound it is the sound of a body. The sound of a 
body is the vibration of the body which impresses the audi- 
tory nerves. 

(4) Through the sense of hearing acting alone we per- 



88 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

ceive only sounds, which are secondary and subjective quali- 
ties. 

2. Uses of the Sense of Hearing. (1) Hearing gives num- 
berless sounds, and all we infer through them of distance, 
direction, and the presence and approach of bodies. It gives 
all the power and joy of speech. The use of the speech voice 
depends upon our ability to hear. The tones of the voice 
express ideas, the kind and degree of emotion felt, and the 
strength of the will. Oral reading and recitations are very 
important means in training the mind to hear as well as to 
communicate. The speech voice, by training, becomes one 
of the most effective instruments of expression. 

(2) Hearing opens to the mind the sweet melody of 
music, both vocal and instrumental. Vocal music is a very 
important element in education for the refining influence 
which it exerts; for the cheerful relief it gives; for the 
enthusiasm it awakens; for its power to move the will, and 
for the expression of the soul in worship. The sense of hear- 
ing should receive the most careful cultivation. 

§V. What the Mind Perceives Through Taste 
Acting Alone. 

1. The Perception of Flavors. When a soluble body is 
placed upon the tongue we have a sensation of taste and per- 
ceive the idea of a flavor. It is known only as a change in 
self, is subjective. 

(1) A flavor is an idea acquired from a sensation of 
taste. Taste gives only a knowledge of flavors. We know 
flavors only by taste. We recognize four classes of flavors, — 
sour, sweet, salt, and bitter. 

The nerves of touch and the nerves of taste upon the 
upper surface of the tongue are so closely related that it is 
difficult to separate their action. Touch acting with taste 
connects the flavor with the body. 

(2) The flavor of a body is that in the body ivhich 
impresses the nerves of taste. 

(3) Through the sense of taste acting alone we know 
only flavors, which are secondary and subjective qualities. 



THE MIND PRESENTING THE EXTERNAL WORLD. 89 

2. The Uses of Taste. Taste gives knowledge of flavors, 
which aids in the preparation of food, and makes eating and 
drinking pleasureable. 

§VI. What the Mind Perceives Through Smell 
Acting Alone. 

1. The Perception of Odors. If we place alcohol in a 
bottle with a glass stopper it remains there, which shows it 
cannot escape through the glass. If the stopper be left out, 
the alcohol disappears, which shows it flies away, is volatile. 
Placing the nostrils over the open mouth of the bottle con- 
taining the alcohol we have a sensation of smell and we infer 
that it was produced by volatile alcohol. The same experi- 
ment with ether, musk, camphor, and many other substances 
gives a like result. We infer from these experiments that it 
is the impact of the volatile particles, coming from the body 
upon the olfactory nerves which gives the sensation of smell 
from which we perceive the idea of an odor. 

(1) An odor is an idea acquired from a sensation of 
smell. It is known only as a change in self; it is not con- 
nected with any body by smell. Smell gives only a know- 
ledge of odors. We know odors only by smell. 

Touch and smell acting together connect the odor with 
the body. 

(2) The odor of a body is that in the body which im- 
presses the nerves of smell. Odors are known as agreeable 
or disagreeable; we do not further classify them. The organs 
of taste and smell are situated so near together that we often 
confound flavors and odors. 

(3) Through the sense of smell acting alone we know 
only odors, which are secondary and subjective qualities. 

2. Uses of Smell. Smell gives the knowledge of odors, 
which enables us to detect the presence of noxious gases, 
and to enjoy fragrant objects; it also increases the pleasure 
of eating. 

3. Immediate Perceptions. Our own bodies are in the 
immediate presence of our minds hence we have immediate 
perceptions of their existence. We have immediate percep- 



90 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

tions of bodies external to our own when we press upon them 
through the resistance they offer to our muscular exertions. 

4. Mediate Perceptions. In touch without pressure, and 
in each of the other senses we have a sensation which is 
wholly within us from which we infer the quality of the body 
external to us which occasions the sensation in us. 

5. Quality of Body Defined. The quality of a body, 
viewed in relation to the mind, is the effect in the mind 
which the body produces. The quality of a body, viewed in 
relation to the body, is that in the body which produces the 
peculiar effect in the mind. 

5. Percept Defined. A percept is the simple idea of a 
single quality perceived through one sense organ. Through 
each sense we acquire knowledge of percepts. All percepts of 
degrees of resistance must be acquired through the organ of 
touch; all percepts of color must be acquired through the eye; 
of sounds through the ear; of flavors, through the tongue; of 
odors, through the olfactory nerves. 

§VII. What the Mind Perceives Through the 
United Action of the Senses. 

1. Ideas of Individual Objects. I pass my hand through 
space, something offers resistance, I perceive a body; I press 
it, I perceive it is soft; I move my fingers over its surface, I 
perceive it is rough; I look at it, I perceive it is yellow; I 
strike it on the desk, I perceive a dull sound; I taste it, I per- 
ceive a sour flavor; I smell it, I perceive an agreeable odor. 
I think together these percepts of the different senses and 
form the idea of an individual material object which is a 
body, soft, rough, yellow, makes a dull sound, is sour, and 
has an agreeable odor; I call it a lemon. 

Again, I pass my hand through space, something offers 
resistance, I perceive a body; I press upon it, it moves freely, 
I perceive it is fluid; I look at it and perceive its color is so 
faint that I call it colorless; I strike it, I perceive a gurgling 
sound; I taste it, I perceive so little flavor I call it tasteless; 
I smell it, I perceive it is odorless. I think together these 
percepts of the different senses and form the idea of an indi- 



THE MIND PRESENTING THE EXTERNAL WORLD. 91 

vidual object which is a body, fluid, colorless, makes a gur- 
gling sound, tasteless, and odorless, which I call water. 

The mind through the united action of the senses per- 
ceives the qualities of the individual object and forms the 
complex idea of the object. 

2. Strength of Primary Ideas. The strength of these 
primary ideas depends first, upon the perfection of our sense 
organs; second, upon the accuracy of our sense perception; 
third, upon our ability to interpret the ideas. 

3. Thinking as We Perceive. As I perceive each quality 
I think this quality belongs to the object, so that each percep- 
tion of a quality implies an act of thinking. In sense per- 
ception our world is a world of individual things. 

4. The Natural Order in the Use of the Senses. The 
natural order in the use of the senses is sight, touch, hearing, 
taste, and smell. Sight is used first because the eye has the 
widest range of action, receiving light from all directions. 
We see a color which has form and size and infer there is a 
body of the same form and size, from which the light comes 
to the eye. We immediately proceed to acquire knowledge of 
the body through touch. Hearing comes next in the extent of 
its range, and enables us to judge of the quahty of sounds and 
of the position, direction, and approach of objects, and is the 
means of oral communication. Taste and smell follow and 
are closely associated in their action. They indicate the 
character of the food we eat, the air we breathe, and the 
chemical qualities of bodies having flavor and odor. 

5. Order in the Acquisition of Ideas. First. We acquire a 
clear idea of the whole object, then of its parts, and their 
names. We have a clear idea of an object when we perceive 
its color, form, and size so as to distinguish it as a whole 
from other objects. 

Second. We acquire from the objects a distinct idea of 
the single quality and the fit word for the expression of the 
quahty. 

Third. We acquire the complex idea of the individual 
object, and its expression. We can describe the object defi- 



92 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

nitely only as we have distinct ideas of its qualities and the 
fit words for their expression. 

Fourth. We compare objects for definite ideas of differ- 
ences and resemblances. We separate objects according to 
the qualites in which they differ; we form the idea of a class 
by thinking together the qualities in which individuals are 
alike, and 

(1) In dealing with objects, we proceed from the whole 
object to its parts and their relations. 

(2) In'[acquiring ideas, we proceed from the simple idea 
of the single quality to the complex idea of the whole object. 

(3) In comparison of objects, we proceed from the par- 
ticular idea of the individual to the general idea of the class. 

(J/.) hi forming a class of individual objects, the mirid 
unconsciously notes the qualities in which individuals are 
alike, thinks them together and forms a concept composed of 
the qualities common to the individuals; gives it a class name 
and groups the individuals which have the common qualities. 

§VIII. Use of Acquired Perceptions. 

1. The Senses Are in Close Partnership. The percepts 
they give are strongly associated, because the senses have 
always lived and worked together. Sight is constantly using 
the ideas furnished by the muscular sense. We can know 
the existence of a body, and the degrees of resistance offered 
by it, only through touch with pressure. Yet we say that 
we see the body, and that we see the steel is hard, the butter 
is soft, the granite is rough, the glass is smooth, the water is 
fluid, the wax is sticky, the snow is cold. We say also that 
we see the bell is sonorous, the orange is sweet, the lemon 
is sour, and the rose is fragrant. In all this the sight is 
using the ideas that have been acquired through the other 
senses, and which have been associated with the colors seen 
through the eye. The mind is not fully satisfied with what 
it sees, for immediately on seeing a new color we make a 
movement to handle the body from which the light comes, 
that we may verify the inference made through sight. So 
strong is this tendency that the salesman has to place his 



THE MIND PRESENTING THE EXTERNAL WORLD. 93 

choicest goods in glass cases to prevent their being spoiled 
by handhng. Hearing the voice of a friend through the tele- 
phone, or hearing his footsteps or his knock brings him dis- 
tinctly before the mind. Here, as in sight, the mind is using 
percepts acquired through other senses. 

2. W^e Are Sometimes Deceived by the Inference. I see 
the color of an orange and I infer it is sweet, but find upon 
tasting, it is sour. I think I see a pillar projecting from the 
frescoed wall of a church. I find upon examination that there 
is no pillar, I only saw the color. Sight could not give the 
complete idea of the pillar. It requires great care in the use 
of each sense to make correct inferences from previous per- 
ceptions. We must be careful how we substitute inferences 
from other perceptions for the direct perception by the pro- 
per sense. 

§ IX. Language in Relation to Sense Perception. 

The First Meaning. Language in its primary meaning is 
the power by which we form ideas and associate them with 
their proper signs, that we may give them effective expres- 
sion. We must associate the idea with its sign to hold it for 
use, so that the recurrence of the spoken word or the written 
word shall suggest the idea of the object. When a new 
object comes before the mind we immediately ask " What is 
it?" The mind at once seeks to associate the idea it per- 
ceives with its sign, the class name, and to place the object 
in its class. The cultivation of this power should be carried 
on in connection with every exercise of the perceptive power. 

The Second Meaning. Language is the system of signs 
by which we express ideas. As such it is an object to be 
studied and should be constantly studied in connection with 
the acquisition of the knowledge of objects. The pupils 
should be trained to choose the word that best fits the idea to 
be expressed. In the choice of derivative words he should 
be taught the meaning of their component parts. 



94 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

§X. Cultivation of Sense Perception. 

1. Basis of Development. The cultivation of this power 
is the foundation of mental development. The child seeks 
first knowledge of things through his sense organs. His first 
work is to find his place in the natural world. And all through 
his life he has to make his way by extending his knowledge 
of the external world through sense perception. 

2. Exact Observation. The pupil should be educated to 
exact observation in the use of each sense: 

(1) That he may acquire definite elementary knowledge 
through each sense as food for thinking; 

(2) That he may acquire the broader scientific know- 
ledge which depends upon exact elementary knowledge; 

(3) That he may lay the foundation for the develop- 
ment of taste and the appreciation of the beautiful; 

(4) That he may gain command of nature and men; 

(5) That he may cultivate the power of language whose 
use is co-incident with his observation. 

3. Habit of Perceiving. We may allow objects to pass 
before the mind without perceiving the qualities we ought to 
observe, which forms the habit of neglecting to perceive. 
We may require the mind to perceive quahties we ought to 
notice distinctly whenever external objects come into its 
presence, which forms the habit of perceiving distinctly 
through each sense. We form one habit or the other. 

4. Course of Lessons. A systematic course of lessons 
for acquisition of distinct ideas of forms, of colors, of sounds 
is essential as a preparation for acquiring distinct ideas of 
individual objects. These courses should be a part of the 
daily lessons, until the habit of observing forms, colors, and 
sounds is established. 

5. Knowledge of An Object. Complete knowledge of a 
material object requires that we know it as a whole; in its 
elements, if , unorganized, in its parts if organized; in its 
qualities; in the uses to which its qualities adapt it; in its 
relation to our needs; and that we have the definite expres- 
sion of this knowledge. 



CHAPTER X. 
THE MIND PRESENTING THE INNER WORLD. 

Whatever that be which thinks, which understands, which wills, 
which acts, it is something celestial and divine; and upon that account 
must be eternal. — Cicero. 

§1. The Inner Sense. 

1. The World of Mind. We have considered the mani- 
festation of Reason in Intellect which gives to all men the 
necessary ideas which regulate our knowing, and Sense Per- 
ception which gives the knowledge of the infinity of objects 
in the external world of sense. 

We have now to consider the action of the Inner Sense 
by which the mind knows, its modes of thought, feeling, and 
willing and their products. We have this knowledge imme- 
diately, for nothing can come between the mind and its own 
activity. 

Definition. The Inner Sense is the mind knowing its 
own activities and their products. 

2. The Inner Sense is the Condition for Self Knowledge, 
which means that we know our activities in thinking, feeling, 
and willing in themselves; in their relations to one another; 
and in their adaptation to attain the ends of our being. 

3. The Inner Sense is the Condition for Rational Self- 
government. We govern ourselves rationally only as we take 
into view the activity of all our powers, with the purpose 
which they serve, only as we know which powers are lower 
and which are higher, which are impulsive and which are 
governing. We must be able to see what their action is, and 
to determine what it shall be. 

4. The Inner Sense is the Condition for Knowing Our 
Fellowmen. Because men are alike in having the same modes 



96 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

of activity we may judge others by ourselves. We cannot 
directly observe the action of another mind. We can observe 
only its manifestations. I must know my own mental activ- 
ity and its natural mode of expression. It is only by compar- 
ing the manifestations of another mind with my own mani- 
festion that I infer the activity which underlies his expres- 
sion. Hence, we can judge others truly only as we truly 
know ourselves. It is of vital importance to the teacher that 
he judge truly the activity of his pupil. 

5. Character of the Inner World. "We have revealed 
through the Inner Sense a world more wonderful even than 
that which is without,— a world of intelligence, of compre- 
hension, of feeling, of will, of personality, and of moral 
instead of physical law. It is a world whose phenomena we 
can study and arrange as we do those of the external world." 

§11. Presentative Power. 

1. The Power by Which W^e Gain Knowledge of Mate- 
rial and Mental Objects as they are presented to the mind is 
called the Presentative Power. The two modes of this power 
are Sense Perception and the Inner Sense. We have three 
departments of knowledge. We have necessary and univer- 
sal ideas and truths; we have the world of matter; and the 
world of mind. "Each is necessary to the others, and all 
combine in giving us a rational being, standing face to face 
with an unlimited universe which he is to investigate." 

2. The Condition for Objective Presentation is attention 
to the object of thought when it is present in consciousness 
with the purpose to acquire knowledge. 

3. The Products of Effective Presentation are definite 
knowledge of material and mental objects, power to observe, 
and power to express accurately. 

4. W^e Have Found the Elements of All Our Knowledge 
and How We Get Them. First. We have regulative ideas 
which are given by reason. 

Second. We have the primary ideas of the single quali- 
ties of individual objects, called percepts, and the complex 
ideas of individual objects given by Sense Perception. 



THE MIND PRESENTING THE INTERNAL WORLD. 97 

Third. We have the phenomena of thinking, feeling, 
and willing, which are given by the Inner Sense. 

Material objects are presented in space and time. 
Mental objects are presented in self and time. 

§111. The Principles of Education Derived from 

THE PrESENTATIVE PoWER. 

1. Presence of the Object. The object of thought from 
which primary ideas are acquired must be in the presence of 
the mind. 

2. Attention to Object. Attention to the object present 
is to be secured by the interest and skill of the teacher in 
presenting the object of thought. 

3. Acquisition of Ideas. Definite ideas and thoughts 
must be acquired and must be definitely expressed in good 
English, orally and in writing. 

4. Natural Order. The natural order, proceeding from 
the whole object to its parts and their relations must be fol- 
lowed. 

5. Repetition. Ideas and their expression become the 
permanent possession of the mind only by much repetition. 

6. Adaptation. The Teaching must be adapted to the 
unfolding of the mind. The perceptive power leads, but 
memory, imagination, and reflection are active, the sensibil- 
ity is active, and the will is exerted with increasing strength. 



CHAPTER XI. 
THE MIND REPRESENTING. MEMORY. 

Without memory there could be no other intellectual operation. 

— Johnson, 

§1. How Does the Mind Represent? 

1. Representative Power. What does the mind do with 
the elements of knowledge which it has acquired by the Pre- 
sentative Power? 

We ask first, where are the ideas which we have acquired 
when we are not thinking of them? For example, where are 
the ideas of home and friends when we are not thinking of 
them? We do not know where they are. "All that we 
know is, that when the mind has been in a state of knowing, 
feeling, or willing, it may, on certain conditions, be caused 
to return to a similar state." The former and the subse- 
quent states are so much alike that they seem to be identical, 
and we speak of them as being the same. We are conscious 
of the power to produce mental states similar to those we 
have had before. This power is called the Representative 
Power. 

2. The Mental Current. We are SO constituted that we 
must think, feel, and will. This is our nature. When once 
the mind has started on its course, there is through the 
Representative power, in connection with the other powers, 
a constant succession of thoughts, feelings, and volitions 
passing in continuous flow. This current began with our 
life, and was very narrow at first, but it has been constantly 
enlarging and now takes in all our experience. It moves on 
involuntarily furnishing the material on which the voluntary 
powers act. 

(1) This involuntary current we know as ourself. We 



THE MIND REPRESENTING. MEMORY. 9d 

watch its movements and note what thought, feeling, pur- 
pose, or desire comes in it. We cannot stop its flow but we 
can and do choose which object of thought in it we will dwell 
upon, which feeling we will cherish, and thus we determine 
the direction of the current, and the quality of our character. 
"As he thinketh in his heart so is he." 

(2) The current seems to flow in waves. Now we are 
perceiving, remembering, imagining or reflecting, and the 
wave of thought is highest, and we say we are thinking. 
Now we are loving, hating, or rejoicing, and the wave of 
feeling is highest, and we say we are feeling. Again, we are 
struggling under the influence of conflicting motives to 
decide what we will do or not do, and the wave of willing is 
highest, and we say we are willing. When we are quietly 
resting, the waves seem to be equal in height. The predomi- 
nant element gives name to the mental state. 

(3) The past mental state never returns. Only that 
portion of the current that is now passing is before the mind, 
just as we see only the portion of the stream of water that is 
now passing by. The mental state that has passed by never 
returns. A state so much like the state which has passed 
that we call it the same may come, as when the same object 
returns, or we have the memory of the state. 

{4-) The portion passing is complex. Every definite 
image we know in the current is accompanied by those less 
definite, and there is also a sense of relations near and 
remote, as when I am thinking of my absent home, I have a 
distinct image of my home, and the objects associated with 
it appear less distinct as related to it. 

{5) The rate of the flow varies. It may move with a 
rush of thoughts, feelings, and decisions, as when we wit- 
ness an exciting game; or it may move moderately, or very 
slowly, as when we rest in an easy chair. The rate of the 
current varies in different persons. 

3. Association of Ideas. How do we hold the ideas we 
have acquired? We have seen that ideas are brought into 
company, at the time they are acquired, with the objects 
from which they come, with ideas previously known, and 



100 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

with words. It is because of this relation of companionship 
that they suggest or excite one another. 

Definition. The association of ideas or thoughts is the 
relation of companionship by which one idea or thought 
excites another. 

4. Principle of Association. How are ideas brought back? 
The thought of a tall man was associated with the thought of 
a short man when we first knew these ideas because they are 
related ideas. The thought of the smooth pebbles, as we 
saw them on the beach, was associated with the thought of 
the action of the waves which made them smooth. The 
recurrence of one of these associated thoughts tends to excite 
the other. We find in every instance, when thoughts are 
associated, that the recurrence of one of the thoughts tends 
to excite the other. 

Definition. The principle or law of association is the 
uniform tendency which the recurrence of one associated 
thought has to excite another. 

§11. Primary and Objective Principles of Asso- 
ciation. 

1. Time. If two things are known at the same time, as 
when we meet two persons on the street; or in immediate 
succession, as when we hear a singer and the applause which 
follows his singing, and then, afterwards one of these objects 
comes to mind, we think of the other. The principle of time 
is that thoughts are associated when their objects hold the 
relation of co-existence, or of immediate succession in time. 

This principle of time shows the necessity of observing 
closely the things which come before the mind at the same 
time. 

2. Place. The home of our childhood and the events 
which occurred there are strongly associated; also the village 
common and the buildings located around it, because they 
hold the relation of nearness of place. The principle of place 
is that thoughts are associated when their objects hold the 
relation of nearness in place. 

This principle of place shows the need of observing care- 



THE MIND REPRESENTING. MEMORY. 101 

fully all the objects which come before the mind in one 
group. 

3. Resemblance. If we saw a house yesterday, and 
today see another which resembles it, we think of the house 
we saw yesterday, because they are alike.' The principle of 
resemblance is that thoughts are associated when their 
objects hold the relation of resemblance. 

This principle shows the importance of observing accu- 
rately points of resemblance by which objectsare classified. 

4. Contrast. Sweetness and sourness, darkness and 
light, heat and cold, friendship and enmity hold the relation 
of contrast. The principle of contrast is that thoughts are 
associated when their objects hold the relation of contrast. 

This principle shows the importance of observing the 
differences by which objects are distinguished. 

5. Cause and Effect. The thought of a tempest suggests 
the thought of a wreck. The thought of a rifted oak excites 
the thought of the lightning which rent it because these 
objects hold the relation of cause and effect. These are cor- 
relative terms; the one implies the other. The principle of 
cause and effect is that thoughts are associated when their 
objects hold the relation of cause and effect. 

This principle shows the importance of observing the 
relation of cause and effect because of the importance of the 
ideas associated and because of the permanent relation which 
the ideas hold to each other. 

These principles arise from the relations which the 
objects of thought hold to one another, and are called pri- 
mary principles because these relations come to the mind 
first, and because they are in distinction from other princi- 
ples of association which arise from the relations which the 
objects of thought hold to the mind. 

§ III. Secondary and Subjective Principles of 
Association. 

To determine what particular ideas will be suggested 
under the action of the primary principles of association, we 



102 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

must consider the states of mind which existed when the 
ideas were acquired which are afterwards recalled. 

1. Interest. A lesson upon the animal itself excites 
deeper interest than a lesson upon the description of the 
animal. The ideas of the former lesson are more readily 
recalled. The principle of interest is that ideas come back 
more readily the greater the vivacity with which they are 
acquired. This principle shows the benefit of teaching from 
the object. 

2. Attention. A lesson to which we have given much 
time and close attention is more readily recalled than one to 
which we have given but little attention, other things being 
equal. The principle of attention is that ideas come back 
more readily the greater the amount of attention which was 
given to their acquisition. This principle shows the benefit 
of concentration of thought. 

3. Repetition. A lesson which has been many times 
repeated is easily recalled. The principle of repetition is that 
ideas come back more readily the more frequently they have 
been before the mind. This principle shows the benefit of 
reviews. 

4. Lapse of Time. A lesson recently learned is recalled 
more readily than one learned a long time ago. The princi- 
ple of lapse of time is that ideas come back more readily the 
more recently they have been in mind. This principle shows 
the benefit of keeping in touch with our work. 

5. Bodily Vigor. A lesson learned when the body is in 
good condition is more readily recalled than one learned when 
the body is weary. The principle of bodily vigor is that 
ideas come back more readily as the bodily powers were more 
vigorous when they were acquired. This principle shows the 
benefit of good physical health. 

The five secondary principles may be reduced to one 
principle, attention. The knowledge of these principles will 
emphasize the necessity of securing attention. 

6. W^e Are Sometimes Unable to Tell How We Come to 
Think of a Thing. The best explanation of this is ' ' that 
something comes into the mind and introduces something 



THE MIND REPRESENTING. MEMORY. 103 

else, but disappears so instantaneously that all trace of it is 
lost." 

These secondary principles modify the action of the pri- 
mary principles, which vary with every person. No two 
persons have the same succession of ideas, but with every 
person the deeper the interest, the greater the amount of 
attention, the more frequent the repetition, the more vigor- 
ous the body, the stronger will be the association. 

7. We Have Learned, That every idea is associated with 
a word and with other ideas when it is acquired. 

That it has its companions, and the reproduction of one 
of the group leads to the coming of the others. 

That thoughts are associated according to the relations 
which the objects of thought hold to one another and to the 
mind. 

That these are the conditions for the reproduction and 
recognition of our past mental states. 

8. Three Modes of the Representative Power. The first 
and the lowest mode is Fancy, in which the mental current 
flows on without control. There is simply the reproduction 
of images without any effort of will, without any recognition 
of the time when they were known before. "This involun- 
tary current is the source of dreams, of reveries, of fantas- 
ies, of insanity, of temptation. 

The second mode of representation is Memory, which is 
the mind reproducing and recognizing past mental states. It 
differs from fancy in the recognition of the state and in the 
element of past time. 

The third mode of representation is Imagination, which 
is the reproduction, recognition, and modification of past 
states in the production of images. Imagination differs from 
memory in the modifying and combining the past states. 

§ IV. Memory. 

1. Memory is the mind reproducing and recognizing 
past mental states. 

2. Remembering is the immediate reproduction of past 
states as occasion calls for them without effort of the will. 



104 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

Instantly, on the question being asked how many are three 
fours, twelve comes into the mind. 

3. Recollecting is the reproduction of past states by an 
effort of the will. A story is called for, I cannot tell it at 
once, but by an effort of will, I am able to re-collect the 
details of the story, and tell it. 

4. Quickness and Strength Are the Qualities of a Good 
Memory. The mind that remembers has quick memory and 
always has something to say. The mind that is able to recol- 
lect a large portion of past knowledge as occasion calls for it 
has strong memory and always says something. 

5. Memory is Circumstantial when the mind associates 
its ideas chiefly under the relations of time and place. Then 
there is danger that the reproduction will have an excess of 
details, and the person will be tedious in the expression of 
his ideas. There may be great memory for details, without 
sound judgment; but there cannot be sound judgment with- 
out strong memory to hold the thought. A trained mind, 
acting under the principles of time and place, will be very 
efficient in work requiring much attention to details. 

6. Memory is Philosophical when the mind associates 
its ideas chiefly under the principles of resemblance and 
cause and effect. Then it makes relations and causes promi- 
nent in its thinking. For example, "The physical causes of 
the climate of a country are latitude, elevation above the sea 
level, slope of the lands, prevailing winds, ocean currents, 
relation to large bodies of water. If we consider the causes 
of climate they will suggest an idea of climate as an effect on 
account of the philosophical relation that a cause holds to the 
effect it produces. " " If we study the phenomena of matter 
or of mind for a knowledge of their resemblances and differ- 
ences, and especially for a knowledge of the causes that pro- 
duced the phenomena, we shall acquire our knowledge in a 
philosophical manner, and associate our ideas by their per- 
manent relations. By such modes of activity we may culti- 
vate the philosophical memory." 

A trained mind acting under these principles of associa- 
tion will be efficient in work requiring the knowledge of 



THE MIND REPRESENTING. MEMORY. 105 

general principles, and the ability to form plans, and direct 
affairs. 

7. Varieties of Memory. These are the kinds of mem- 
ory dependent upon the principles of association. There 
seem to be varieties of memory that depend upon the natural 
aptitude of the mind, as a memory for names, for dates, for 
words in general, for places, and resemblances. 

§V. Cultivation of Memory. 

1. Memory is Cultivated in the Acquisition of Knowledge. 
There are three conditions for remembering. First, the habit 
of giving undivided attention to the object of thought in the 
acquisition of ideas. 

Second. The study of objects in the natural order, and 
subjects in the logical order, to find their relations, that the 
ideas may be strongly associated. 

Third. The repetition of the ideas in their relations 
until they are fixed in their association so as to be easily 
reproduced. A man met a friend in the street and said to 
him, I have just heard a good story, let me tell it to you that 
I may keep it. 

Habits of Attention, Association, Repetition are the con- 
ditions for remembering. 

2. Memorizing Verbatim. Memorizing verbatim is mem- 
orizing a thought word for word. The thought is to be known 
definitely before the words are memorized. The words are 
the means for the definite .expression of the thought. The 
habit of memorizing verbatim is best formed before twelve 
years of age, when the mind associates words with greater 
facility than at a later period. It should be kept up through 
life. 

3. V^hat Should Be Memorized Verbatim. The pupil 
should memorize verbatim choice passages of prose and 
poetry; helpful moral precepts which he understands; state- 
ments of principles which he has been led to work out by his 
own observation and thought; rules which he has derived by 
thinking out the steps of the process which the rule ex- 
presses. These thing are the best products of thought and 



106 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

expression, and when they have been tvorked out, in the best 
form, they should be kept in that form Hke any piece of fine 
work. 

4. Advantages of Memorizing Verbatim: 

It fixes in the mind the best thought and expression. 

It cultivates a taste for good expression. 

It furnishes food for reflection. 

It increases one's vocabulary. 

It strengthens the power to use good language. 

Professor James says: "Constant exercise in verbal 
memorizing must still be an indispensable feature in all 
sound education. Nothing is more deplorable than an inartic- 
ulate and helpless sort of mind that is reminded by every- 
thing of some quotation, case, or anecdote, which it cannot 
exactly recollect. Nothing, on the other hand, is more con- 
venient to its possessor, or more delightful to his comrades, 
than a mind able in telling a story to give the exact words of 
the dialogue or to furnish a quotation accurate and com- 
plete." 

5. Memorizing " by rote " is memorizing words without 
attention to the thought which they express. It forms the 
habit of taking words without knowledge, and is subversive 
of all true mental training. It violates every one of the con- 
ditions of remembering. 

6- Memory Unifies All Modes of Thinking. It connects 
the present with the past and makes experience possible. In 
perception, for example, a child sees a squirrel for the first 
time. He takes its pattern and gets its name. He sees a 
second squirrel; memory immediately connects it with the 
first, and so on, every new squirrel seen is connected by 
memory with those before known. Unconsciously, the mind 
through memory compares the squirrels perceived, notes the 
qualities in which they are alike, thinks them together, forms 
the idea of the class squirrel, gives it a name, and brings the 
power of language into activity. Thus sense perception 
through memory becomes conception. The mind goes 
through this elementary generalization unconsciously. There- 



THE MIND REPRESENTING. MEMORY. 107 

after the child perceives the individual squirrel as one of a 
class and uses the common name. 

The mind judges of the relations of concepts only as 
memory holds them in consciousness. In feeling, memory 
enables us to enjoy again the emotional states we have had 
by bringing them again into consciousness. In willing, 
memory enables us to live over again the struggles and 
achievements of the past and to find in them incentives to 
strenuous life in the present. 

7. Memory Strengthened. Memory is strengthened along 
those lines in which the mind is exerted. The memory of 
forms is strengthened by the draftsman; of colors by the 
painter; of sounds by the musician; of flavors by the coffee 
taster; of odors by the smeller of teas. Memory for any class 
of facts can be improved only by training in this class of facts. 
A young man was a very poor speller. His teacher perceived 
that he had not been trained to observe the letters which 
form the word. He accordingly required the pupil to copy 
five hundred words a week from the spelling book, for sev- 
eral weeks, and to bring the list to the teacher for correction. 
Then the teacher required him to copy whole chapters from 
a book. In a few months, the pupil had become a good speller, 
because he had formed the habit of observing the order of 
the letters in words. We need to take much care to cultivate 
in due proportion the memory of the things we need to use. 

"Memory is the cabinet of imagination, the treasury of 
reason, the registry of conscience, and the council chamber 
of thought." — Basile. 



CHAPTER XII. 
THE MIND REPRESENTING. IMAGINATION. 

Imagination is the eye of the soul. — Joubert. 

§1. The Imaging Power. 

1. Reproductive Imagination. In reading Mother- Goose 
Melodies or any other vivid story, the mind images the 
objects and scenes narrated and seems to see them distinctly 
as if they w^ere present to the eye. A w^atermelon is spoken 
of and the mind images it as a whole with its ruddy inside 
and bright black seeds. A familiar house is mentioned and 
the mind images the house with all its faces and its interior. 

Definition. The mind distinctly reproducing the image 
of an existing thing is called the Reproductive Imagination. 

2. Productive Imagination. (1) I think of a landscape 
in which the open, undulating stretch of land is the most 
pleasing feature; of another in which a beautiful body of 
water is the most attractive feature; of a third in which 
trees in beautiful groups are very pleasing. I combine these 
thoughts of parts of different landscapes, modifying them as 
I please, into the thought of a landscape more beautiful than 
I have seen. I have thus formed an ideal landscape. 

(2) An artist sits down before his canvas. Thoughts of 
human faces come into his mind. He sketches the outline of 
a perfectly symmetrical face. He draws the eye according 
to his highest ideal of a beautiful eye. He does the same 
with the nose, the mouth, with each feature. He paints 
each feature with the highest beauty of color which he can 
command. He has combined the thoughts of parts of differ- 
ent faces, modifying them to suit his ideal, and has painted 
on the canvas an ideal human face. 



THE MIND REPRESENTING. IMAGINATION. 109 

(3) A writer is thinking of an evening scene, in which 
the "hours passed swiftly and silently; many stars appeared 
in the sky and were reflected in the sea." Other thoughts 
are suggested, and she writes the following description of 
the scene: 

The evening hours like birds flew by, 

As lightly and as free; 
Ten thousand stars were in the sky, 

Ten thousand in the sea; 
For every wave with dimpled cheek. 

That leaped upon the air, 
Had caught a star in its embrace. 

And held it trembling there. 

— Mrs. Amelia B. Welby. 

Her mind takes thoughts of parts of different scenes and 
combines them in the way most pleasing to her, into the 
thought of this ideal poetic picture. 

(4) I am thinking of a person who manifests a kind, 
courteous, loving spirit; of another who is highly cultivated, 
noble, upright in his actions; of a third who is reverently 
and cheerfully obedient to God in all things. I combine these 
thoughts of different persons into the thought of a person 
who has all these qualities of character in high degree and 
form a7i ideal person. In forming the ideal person we com- 
bine thoughts of qualities of different persons, instead of 
combining thoughts of pa7is of different extended wholes. 

Definition. Productive imagination is the mind taking 
thoughts of parts of different wholes, modifying them at 
pleasure, and combining them into the thought of a new 
whole. 

3. Elements of Imagination. The elements in imagining 
are reproduction, abstraction, and combination. Reproduc- 
tion is reproducing the wholes from which thoughts of parts 
are taken. Abstraction is the mind thinking of a part sepa- 
rate from the other parts of the whole by thinking away 
from the other parts. Combination is the mind modifying 
and combining the thoughts of the parts of different wholes 
into the thought of a new whole. 

The luholes of which the mind takes thoughts of parts in 



110 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

imagining are ideas of sensible objects which the mind has 
perceived, of objects seen, of objects heard, of objects acting, 
of objects handled. 

The new whole which is formed by the combination is 
an ideal object, an image, a picture, such as might be pre- 
sented to the senses. In imagining these sensible objects, 
the mind seems to use again the senses through which the 
ideas of which they are formed were originally perceived. 

4. The Products of the Imagination Are Ideal Objects. 
First. The imagination may separate a part from its whole, 
as in the hand that wrote upon the wall in the king's palace; 
or it may simply combine parts without modification, as in 
the centaur and mermaid; it may greatly diminish objects, 
as the Lilliputians in Gulliver's Travels; or it may greatly 
enlarge objects, as in the gaint Atlas carrying the earth upon 
his shoulders. The new whole may be formed with but a 
slight modification, or the modification may be such as to 
bring the new whole as near as possible to perfection, as in 
the illustrations of the ideal landscape, the ideal face, the 
beautiful picture of the poet, and the ideal man. 

Second. The parts combined may be congruous, as in the 
ideal landscape, the ideal face, the poetic picture, and the 
ideal man, or they may be incongruous, as in cartoons, form- 
ing wholes which are grotesque, extravagant, unnatural, and 
strange. 

Third. The product may be an imitative picture, as 
when we hear or read descriptions of persons, places, and 
events, and the imagination forms its picture from the 
description; or it may bean original picture of the mind's 
own creation, as when we select and combine ideas in speak- 
ing, writing, in painting, sculpture, architecture, landscape 
gardening, and poetry. 

§11. The Uses of the Imagination. 

1. In the Interpretation of Speech and Writing. For 
example, we hear or read the following narrative. I visited 
my friend, Mr. Brighthope, in his beautiful home on the 
shore of Massachusetts Bay. I slept in the front chamber, 



THE MIND REPRESENTING. IMAGINATION. Ill 

rose early. It was a glorious morning. I went out down the 
front steps, crossed the street, passed through an arched 
gateway, down a gentle slope, following a path which wound 
around a beautiful pond in the hollow, and led up a steep 
incline upon the other side and out upon a round hill-top, 
from which I looked upon the Bay, and saw boats, schooners, 
and large steamers gliding across the sparkling sea. As we 
hear or read this narrative, imagination pictures the friend, 
his chamber, the morning, the stroll, and the view, and we 
seem to pass through the experience of the visit. 

One's ability to learn from narration and description 
depends largely upon his power of imagination in selecting 
ideas and combining them into new wholes. The study of 
Geography and History when considering objects beyond 
the sphere of the pupil's observation calls directly upon the 
imagination. 

2. In Conversation and Writing. It is the imagination 
which enables one to select and combine ideas so as to form 
vivid and interesting descriptions of things, places, events, 
and persons in conversation and writing. The power of 
expression is largely dependent on the imagination. 

3. In Imitative Construction. We are continually select- 
ing, modifying, and recombining our movements, as new cir- 
cumstances and new needs require. We do this in imitating 
the actions of others, as in learning to write, draw, sing, 
dance, and in all sorts of actions. Children are especially 
active in imitative construction. 

4. In Inventive Construction. Imagination is active in 
the invention of utensils and machines of all kinds. We do 
this experimentally by separating, dividing, manipulating, 
and combining material, as imagination suggests. 

5. The Poetic Imagination which is what is commonly 
understood by imagination, seeks, not knowledge nor inven- 
tion, but enjoyment, both in its receptive and in its creative 
activity; as in reading and in originating stories, myths, 
legends, fiction, and poetry; in ideal painting, sculpture, 
architecture, landscape gardening; and in ideals of character 
and conduct. The imaginary actions and scenes give a feel- 



112 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

mg of pleasure akin to the feeling which the perception of 
the objects awakens. 

6. Different Ideals. (1) The imagination may form 
vivid sensual ideas which make vice alluring. It may dwell 
so much upon the fictitious and wonderful that we become 
discontented with actual life. It may so misinterpret the 
action of others as to make us suspicious of them. It may be 
so lively as to confound fact and fiction. By giving ourselves 
up to the pleasurable feeling which it awakens we may 
become "dreamers." Such activity of the imagination 
degrades thought, feeling, and action. 

(2) The imagination may form vivid ideals of the beau- 
tiful in nature and art. It may form noble ideals of the true 
and good in conduct. Such activity of the imagination 
awakens hope, strengthens faith, and elevates all our thought, 
feeling, and action. 

7. " Imagination is the Evidence of Things Unseen. The 
power to see the unseen may be used in one of three ways; it 
may conjure up sensual and brutal images; it may conjure up 
mere pleasing pictures; it may conjure up ideals superior to 
the life by which we are surrounded. In the first use it 
degrades; in the second it pleases; in the third it elevates. 
The first use promotes vice; the second may produce innocent 
pleasure; the third brings inspiration. "~Li/man Abbott. 

§111. The Importance of Imagination. 

1. In Human Progress. The importance of imagination 
to human progress can hardly be over-estimated. *' It is the 
great spring of human activity, and the principal source of 
human improvement." It will be active. It must exert a 
strong influence upon the life either for good or evil. "Espe- 
cially is it of value in holding before the mind an ideal of 
excellence in whatever we pursue." Its highest use is in 
forming ideals of true manhood. The evil effects of imagi- 
nation come from leaving it to follow its own bent without 
regulation. Right training of the imagination from early 
childhood is imperative. 

' ' Its value will depend upon the original strength of the 



THE MIND REPRESENTING. IMAGINATION. 113 

power, the way in which it has been trained, and the use to 
which it is put." 

2. Imagination at Different Ages. (1) Children find 
great pleasure in the exercise of the imagination. Through 
its transforming power the doll of the little girl becomes a 
living child, and with the boy the broomstick becomes a 
prancing horse, and Mother Goose Melodies a great delight. 
Children differ very much in the power of imagination. 
Some have very Httle imagination, they think and act slowly, 
they picture objects, places, persons, with difficulty. Others 
have a high degree of imaginative power, they see things 
large, they picture vividly, they speak so extravagantly that 
they seem to be telling what is untrue, their imagination is 
too active and needs to be offset by calling judgment and 
reasoning into greater activity. 

(2) The action of imagination varies very much in the 
child at different periods; at first, it is very fanciful, because 
of his want of experience and judgment; as he grows older 
and knowledge increases, his ideals change, life becomes 
more real, and he is governed by the desire for what is true 
to nature and to life. The action of imagination in children 
needs careful study. 

(3) The imagination of youth idealizes the future, 
paints it in roseate colors. ' ' Youth is the period of the hero, 
of romance and adventure, of fiction and good history." 

(4) The imagination of manhood pictures life in the 
light of sober reality. "Manhood is the period of the artist, 
the prophet, the poet, the inventor, the discoverer, and the 
captains of finance and industry." It is the day of the 
man's purposes. 

§IV. Cultivation of Imagination. 

1. Indirect Cultivation. (1) The imagination is culti- 
vated indirectly, by the study of natural objects and men, to 
acquire the primary ideas which the imagination is to use in 
forming its ideals. The more carefully the perceptive power 
is trained, the more fully the imagination will be supplied 
with individual objects for its use. 



114 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

(2) Natural objects furnish the highest models of 
beauty and mechanism. They are the source of ideas for all 
inventions. The child should be led to discover the beauties 
of natural objects in color, form, expression, and combina- 
tion. The coloring of the sky at sunrise and sunset, the rose, 
the gazelle, are models of beauty. The boring of the ship- 
worm gave the engineer Brunei his model for the Thames 
tunnel. The spider's v^eb suggested the model for the sus- 
pension bridge. 

(3) Drawing aids in acquiring correct ideas of form. If 
we draw a bird, we soon return to the object to gain a more 
definite idea of its form. Painting aids in acquiring correct 
ideas of color. If we attempt to paint a flower, we soon are 
looking at it again to see its color more definitely. We should 
observe noble, courageous, generous, and right conduct, that 
we may have the materials for forming high ideals of char- 
acter. 

2. By Forming Imitative Ideals. The imagination is 
cultivated by the exercise of it upon imaginative works. 
Beginning with the child: 

The imagination is cultivated by hearing wholesome and 
interesting stories. 

By giving an account of the things described in the read- 
ing lessons. 

By reading pictures. 

By learning choice extracts which furnish beautiful pic- 
tures. 

By reading fiction and poetry which is true to nature 
and elevating in tone. 

By reading paintings, models of sculpture, and architec- 
ture. These exercises call the imagination into activity in 
forming the ideals of other minds, tend to improve the taste, 
and to furnish the mind with standards of comparison. 

3. By Forming Original Ideals. The imagination is cul- 
tivated by using it in forming original ideals. Beginning 
with the child: 

The imagination may be directly cultivated by his telling 
and writing imaginative stories. 



THE MIND REPRESENTING. IMAGINATION. 115 

By making problems. 
By using figurative language. 
By writing imaginative compositions. 
By drawing ideal objects and scenes. 
By forming high ideals of conduct, and constant striv- 
ing for their attainment. 

4. The Imaginative Teacher. ' * Happy indeed is the lot 
of the pupils who sit at the feet of the imaginative teacher, 
and thrice happy is that teacher who discovers an imagina- 
tion to itself." 

" It is because teachers could see in imagination a chance 
for infinite improvement in the human race that we have our 
schools and colleges." 

"It is the man with imagination that improves things." 
Great characters have been made possible because men 
and women saw greater men and women in themselves than 
actually existed." 

5. Control of the Mental Current. (1) We have seen 
that all our ideas, thoughts, feelings, and volitions are repro- 
duced according to the principles of association under which 
they were associated. And we have seen the different modes 
of association. We now ask, what besides the principles of 
association controls the mental current? 

(2) Sense perception is constantly presenting something 
new from without. New sights, sounds, sensitive pleasures 
and pains, all the changes going on in nature, conversation, 
and reading are continually modifying the current. 

(3) The will by controlling the presentative power con- 
trols the mental current. The mind chooses what objects, 
scenes, or pictures it will perceive, what associates it will 
have, what conversation it will hear, what books it will read, 
and thus determines, in large measure, what ideas shall be 
added to the mental current, and the order of their succes- 
sion. 

(4) The will by controlling the choice of thoughts con- 
trols the current. The mind chooses what thoughts in the 
mental current it will consider, what thoughts it will reject. 
It is in this that all mental labor consists; it is hard work. 



116 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

Whoever can do this when he pleases, and especially if he 
has come to do it with pleasure, is said to have a well disci- 
plined mind. 

(5) The will has the strongest and widest control of the 
mental current in controlling the habits of association. One 
may voluntarily look either on the bright side or on the dark 
side of everything, and form the habit of associating ideas 
according to either view. The will can adopt some object of 
pursuit, some purpose, that will hold us to helpful thought 
and feeling and keep us on the right course until the whole 
current shall be changed. 

(6) It appears from this observation of the action of 
the mind, that we can determine the order and material of 
the current, by choosing the objects of thought we will dwell 
upon, and the feelings we will cherish. We do thus choose 
and we determine our character by the choice. The parent 
and the teacher are to lead the child to do this until he is 
taught to know himself, and has gained the power of self- 
control. We are called upon to govern this involuntary cur- 
rent, that is, to govern ourselves. If we do not govern it, it 
will govern us. 

§ V. Representation. 

1. Representation Defined. Representation is the mind 
reproducing past mental states in memory and imagination. 
In memory the mind reproduces and recognizes past mental 
states as they were known. In imagination it reproduces 
images, modifies them at pleasure, and combines them into 
ideal objects. 

2. Conditions of Activity. The conditions of its activity 
are, the previous activity of the mind in the acquisition of 
ideas; the recurrence of the signs of ideas and thoughts; or 
the recurrence of one of the group of associated ideas; and 
the action of the will in determining the direction of the 
mental current. 

3. Products of Its Activity. The products of the laws 
of association are ideas associated with their signs, and clus- 
ters of associated ideas; of memory, past mental states; of 



THE MIND REPRESENTING. IMAGINATION. 117 

imagination, ideal objects, which are embodied in works of 
art, poetry, and persons. 

§VI. Principles of Education from Representa- 
tion. 

1. The study of memory shows the necessity of making 
a strong association of ideas, as they are acquired, with other 
known ideas, and with proper words for their expression. 
The principle of education derived from the study of memory 
is:— The pupil must be trained to habits of attention, asso- 
ciation, and repetition, in the acquisition and expression of 
knowledge. 

2. The study of imagination shows that the ideals which 
the imagination forms depend upon what we observe, upon 
our choice of objects of thought, and upon controlling our 
habits of association. The principle of education derived 
from the study of imagination is: — The pupil must he trained 
to vigorous use of the imagination in forming ideals which 
elevate the mind. 



CHAPTER XIIL 
THE MIND GENERALIZING. 

The key to every man is his thought. — Emerson. 

§1. Three Stages of Thought. 

1. The First Stage. The thoughtful mind in possession 
of definite ideas of individual objects, goes on to think defi- 
nitely of the relations and causes of these objects, and of the 
Maker and sustainer of all things in the world of which we 
are a part. We note three stages of thought. 

The first stage of thought is thinking of individual 
objects. When we perceive a quahty of an individual object 
we think the quality perceived belongs to the individual 
object in which it is perceived. This stage of thought gives 
us a world of unrelated things. 

2. The Second Stage. It is not enough that we know 
that a thing is, we desire to know how and why the thing is 
as it is. In the first stage of thought, we think of each oak 
as an individual tree standing by itself. As we extend our 
observation and think of what we observe, we find that the 
individual oak springs from an acorn, grows, bears acorns, 
and finally dies. Each oak is related to other oaks, and to the 
conditions of its growth. It is a part of a process that is 
going on, and the individual oak is constantly changing. We 
see that things are not permanent, that forces and processes 
are the reality. The word oak then stands in our thought 
for the oak producing force, for the oak producing process, 
and for the great class of oaks of which the individual oak is 
only a part. The second stage of thought is the mind think- 
ing of the essential relations of objects, and the particular 
forces which produce them. 



THE MIND GENERALIZING. 119 

3. The Third Stage. The mind is not satisfied with the 
knowledge of the essential relations of things and the partic- 
ular forces which produce them and asks, how are all the 
objects in this world produced and sustained? Man is a con- 
scious personal cause producing effects. We reason that the 
infinite number of effects manifest in the worlds of matter 
and of mind must be produced by the conscious action of an 
Infinite Person who originates all forces, processes, and 
beings. We are led to think of the particular forces as dif- 
ferent manifestations of His will. This view regards the 
world as the work of a Personal Creator. The third stage of 
thought is the mind thinking of the Infinite Person who is 
the God and Father of all beings, relations, and forces, 

i^ II. Generalizing from Individual Objects. 

1. We Must Generalize. The number of individual 
objects in the natural world is infinite. It is impossible to 
keep them in the mind as unrelated objects and give each 
individual a separate name. We must generalize and group 
objects into classes and so reduce the many to one. 

2. Unconscious Generalization. We generalize first with- 
out noticing that we generalize. For example, the child sees 
for the first time an object covered with feathers and flying. 
He is told it is a bird. He takes its pattern and holds its 
name. He sees a second feathered, winged object. He imme- 
diately connects it with the first object and calls it a bird, 
and so on every bird seen is connected with those before 
known, and called by the same name. Unconsciously the 
child notes the qualities in which the objects arealike, thinks 
them together, and so far as common qualities extend makes 
all the objects alike, and so reduces the many to one, and 
calls each one of the class by one name. By this unconscious 
generalization, we form the idea of a class, give it the class 
name, and bring general terms into use in our speech. This 
extends our thought to the relations of objects and shows 
that we are rational beings. 

We go on to learn how the mind acts in reflective gener- 
alization when the mind considers the relations of the ideas 



120 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE: 

of the individual objects in the absence of the objects. We 
first inquire for 

3. The Elements of Thought. We have the ideas of 
three individual objects before the mind in their qualities as 
given below: 

The duck " Fanny." The parrot " Polly." The canary " Frert." 

is black, is mottled, is yellow, ^ Qualities in 

boat-shaped, stout, slender, . which they 

large, medium, small, differ 

swimmer, climber, percher, J 

feathered, feathered, feathered, 1 

winged, winged, winged, 

air-breathing, air-breathing, air-breathing, 1 Qualities in 

warm-blooded, warm-blooded, warm-blooded, y which they are 

oviparous, oviparous, oviparous, I alike, 

vertebrate, vertebrate, vertebrate, | 

animal. animal. animal. J 

Comparison. We compare these individual objects to 
find in what qualities they differ and in what qualities they 
are alike. They differ in color, they are alike in being feath- 
ered. Comparison is the first element of thought. Compar- 
ison is noticing differences and resemblances. We distinguish 
one object from another by thinking of some quality in which 
the objects differ. We classify objects by thinking of the 
qualities in which the objects are alike. "Scientific classifi- 
cation depends on the observation of resemblances; practical 
skill on the observation of differences." 

Abstraction. Comparison in respect to one quality of 
the two objects implies that we think of this one quality of 
the object by thinking away from the other qualities. This 
act of withdrawal is Abstraction, the second element of 
thought. Abstraction is thinking of one quality of an object 
by thinking away from the other qualities. 

Analysis. If we think of each quality of the object by 
abstraction we shall think the qualities of the object apart 
from one another. This is Analysis, the third element in 
thinking. Analysis is separating any complex whole into its 
constituent elements. 

Synthesis. After thinking apart the qualities of the 
object we think them together into the thought of the object. 
This is synthesis, the Jourth element of thought. Synthesis 



THE MIND GENERALIZING. 121 

is combining the constituent elements of a complex whole. 
Synthesis implies comparison, abstraction, and analysis. 
Thought has these four elements. 

4. Reflective Generalization. In generalizing from the 
ideas of the three individual objects given above we find 
seven qualities in which they are alike. All the objects of 
this kind that we have observed or heard of are alike in 
having these qualities; hence we think that all the individ- 
uals of this kind have these seven qualities. We think 
together these seven qualities found common to the individ- 
uals observed, form a concept or notion and give it the name 
bird. 

Definition. Generalization is considering the qualities 
found common to the individuals observed, common to all the 
individuals of that kind, and giving them a common name. 
We may apply a common name only on the ground of such 
resemblance that what we affirm of all shall be true of each. 

(1) Generalization is based on extended observation and 
testimony. ' ' Testimony is the declaration of one who pro- 
fesses to know the truth of that which he affirms." "He 
who declares a thing may be mistaken, or he may intend to 
deceive. The evidence of testimony is therefore only pro- 
bable." 

(2) Two products of generalization are concepts or 
notions and general terms. The concept formed includes in 
itself the qualities which belong to all the objects of that 
kind, and includes under it all the objects which have the 
common qualities. The concept is general because it includes 
all the qualities in which the individuals are alike. The con- 
cept is abstract, because the mind is withdrawn from the 
qualities in which the individuals differ. The concept is a 
general, abstract idea. There is no individual which has only 
the common qualities of the concept. The name is general 
because it may be applied to any one of the class, and to the 
whole class. 

(3) A third product of generalization is the reduction 
of an unlimited number of objects to one. Since we take 
into the concept only common qualities every individual of 



122 



THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 



the class is made one with every other. Such reduction is a 
necessity as it is impossible for us to keep separate in our 
thought an unlimited number of individuals. 

5. Classification is the Act of Forming a Class. It in- 
cludes forming a concept and grouping under it in our 
thought the objects which have the common qualities included 
in the concept. 

§111. Comprehension and Extension of Concepts. 

1. Concepts Have Two ^A^holes. The comprehension of 
a concept is the number of qualities included in it. The 
extension of the concept is the number of objects included 
under it. Every concept has two wholes, the one whole of 
comprehension composed of qualities, the other whole of 
extension composed of objects. 

2. The Relation of the Comprehension and Extension of 
Concepts. Different concepts may be formed by generaliza- 
tion from the same individual object, differing in the number 
of qualities included in each concept, and differing in the 
number of objects included under each concept; as shown in 
the following illustration, in which the concepts are formed 
by generalization from the same individual persons: 





Comprehension 


Extension. 


Concepts formed. 


Qualities in Concept. 


Objects under 
Concept. 


A being. 


Being. 


All objects. 


Organized being. 


Being, life. 


All plant and animal 
substances. 


Animal. 


Being, life, sensation, volun- 
tary motion. 


All animals. 


Vertebrate. 


Being, life, sensation, volun- 
tary motion, vertebra. 
Being, life, sensation, volun- 


All vertebrates. 


Mammal. 


tary motion, vertebra, 
viviparous. 
Being, life, sensation, volun- 


All mammals. 


Man. 


tary motion, vertebra, 
viviparous, reason. 


All men. 


Individual Plato. 


All qualities of the individual 
object. 


One object. 



Comparing the comprehension and extension of this suc- 
cession of concepts, we see that as the comprehension of the 



THE MIND GENERALIZING. 123 

concept increases the extension diminishes. The comprehen- 
sion and extension of the concept are in inverse ratio. We 
see that the comprehension may increase from a single qual- 
ity to the qualities of the individual object, and the exten- 
sion decrease from all objects to one object. These are the 
limits. 

3. Five Relations in Extension. There are five different 
relations possible in the extension of concepts. 

Exclusion. We notice the different possible relations of 
concepts in extension. If we compare the notions bird and 
cat in their extension, we find that the objects included under 
the notion cat are shut out from those under the notion bird. 
This relation may be expressed to the eye by two circles 
placed each outside the other, supposing all birds to be 
inclosed by one circumference and all cats by the other. 
Notions hold the relation of exclusion when none of the 
objects under one is included under the other. 

Co-extension. It we compare the notions living body and 
organized body, we find that the objects under one are the 
same as those under the other. This relation may be ex- 
pressed by two equal circles placed so as to coincide. Notions 
hold the relation of co-extension when the objects under one 
are the same as those under the other. 

Subordination. If we compare the notions mammal and 
animal, we find that the objects under the notion mammal 
are a part of those under the notion animal. This relation 
may be expressed by placing the circle inclosing mammals 
within the circle inclosing animals. One notion is subordi- 
nate to a second, when the objects under the first are a part 
of those under the second. 

Co-ordination. If we compare the three notions triangle, 
quadrilateral, and polygon with one another in their exten- 
sion we find that they are mutually exclusive. If we com- 
pare them with the notion rectilinear figure, we find that 
they are equally subordinate to it, and that the objects under 
the three notions taken together equal the objects included 
under the notion rectilinear figure. This may be expressed 
by a circle divided into three parts, the whole circle inclosing 



124 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

the objects under the notion rectihnear figure, the parts 
respectively inclosing the objects under the different notions. 
Notions are co-ordinate when they are mutually exclusive 
and equally subordinate to the same notion. 

Intersection. If we compare the notions round body, and 
red body, we find that some of the objects under each notion 
are included under the other. This may be expressed by two 
circles intersecting. Notions hold the relations of intersec- 
tion when some of the objects under one are included under 
the other. An examination of the position of the figures 
representing these five relations, will show that these five are 
all the relations possible in extension. The knowledge of 
these relations is essential 'to the study of logical arrange- 
ment. The relations of subordination and co-ordination are 
most frequently used. 

§IV. Generalization from Concepts. 

1. Forming a Series of Concepts and Classes. The mind 
goes on to think of the relations of difference and resem- 
blance which concepts hold to one another, and forms by 
generalizing from concepts a series of lower and higher con- 
cepts, as shown in the following illustration from geometrical 
concepts. We think away from the differences in the con- 
cepts, think together the common qualities and so form the 
higher concept: 



THE MIND GENERALIZING. 



125 



Individ- 
uals. 



Common 
Qualities. 



Plane bounded by 

1 4.^- J lines, 

plane tn-<^ j^j^^^ straight, 

[^number, 3. 



Three 



angles. 



First 
Concepts. 

"1 

1 Plane 
[Triangle. 



Three 

quadrilat- 
erals. 



Three 
polygons. 



Three 
circles. 



Three 
ellipses. 



Three 

ovals. 



r Plane bounded by 
J lines, 

! kind, straight, 
[^nwmber, A. 

r Plane bounded by 
J lines, 

1 kind, straight, 
[number, 5 or more. 

{ Plane bounded by 

J a line, 

I curved, 

l^ circumference. 

f Plane bounded by 
I a line, 

1 curved, 
l^elliptical. 

{ Plane bounded by 
I a line, 

1 curved, 
oval. 



1 

I Quadrila- 
1 teral. 



1 
I 
J- Polygon. 



1 

-j Circle 



1 
I Ellipse. 



Second 
Concepts. 



Rectilinear 

! figure. 

^ Plane 

bounded by 

lines, 

straight. 



Third 
Concepts. 



Plane 
figure. 
-Plane 
bounded 
by one or 
more 
lines. 



1 



Curvilinear 

figure. 

, Plane 

' bounded by 

one or more 

lines, 

curved. 



Oval. 



J 



J 



The first concepts are formed by generalization from 
individual objects. The second concepts are formed by gen- 
eralization from the first concepts. The third concepts are 
formed by generalization from the second concepts. The 
first, second, and third concepts form a succession of con- 
cepts holding the relation of subordination. 

Definition. A series of concepts is a succession of three 
or more concepts formed by successive generalizations, and 
holding the relation of subordination. The concepts from 
which other concepts are formed are lower concepts. The 
concepts formed from other concepts are higher concepts. 
We have, then, a series of lower and higher concepts. 

Definition. (1) A genus is any concept formed from 
lower concepts. In the series formed above the second and 
third concepts are genera. 

(2) A species is any one of the lower concepts from 



126 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

which a higher concept is formed. In the series above the 
first and second concepts are species. 

The first or lowest concept of a series cannot be a genus. 

(3) Degrees of Genera and Species. The highest notion 
of a series cannot be a species. The degrees of genera are 
highest and lower. The degrees of species are lowest and 
higher. 

(4) Genus and species are relative terms. We have 
defined them as general terms applicable to any two concepts 
in the series holding the relation of higher and lower con- 
cepts. 

(5) Genus and species are also used technically as in the 
classification of the animal kingdom, in which a series of 
seven concepts is formed, named as below: 

Kingdom, Highest genus. 

{ Sub-Kingdom, "1 

I Class, I Lower genus. 

Higher Species. ^ Order, )■ The concepts between the lowest 

I Family, | concept of the series and the highest 

l^ Genus, J are both species and genera. 
Lowest Species. Species. 

(6) An animal is located by finding his place in each 
concept of the series; for example, the Species ox belongs to 
the genus Bos; the Family, hollow-horned; the Order, herbi- 
vora; the Class, mammal; the Sub-Kingdom, vertebrate; the 
Kingdom, animal. 

(7) The specific difference is the quality by which a 
species differs from its genus and from the species with 
which it is co-ordinate. The generic difference is the quality 
by which a lower genus differs from the genus to which it is 
subordinate, and from the genera with which it is co-ordi- 
nate. The specific difference in the species plane triangle, 
quadrilateral, and polygon is the number of bounding lines. 
The specific difference in the species rectilinear figure and 
curvilinear figure is the kind of bounding line. Regarding 
these two concepts as genera the kind of bounding line is 
the generic difference. 

(8) We form series of smaller and larger classes by 
grouping under each notion of the series its objects. The 



THE MIND GENERALIZING. 127 

lower concept has the greater comprehension, hence includes 
the smaller class. The higher concept has less comprehen- 
sion, hence includes the larger class. 

2. The Perfecting of Our Thinking Depends Upon Three 
Things: First. Determining what we think, that is, th^ 
comprehension of our notions, which gives clearness to our 
thought. 

Second. Determining how many objects are included 
under the notions, that is, the extension of the notions, 
which gives distinctness and completeness of thought. 

Third. Determining the order of dependence of our 
thoughts, which gives harmony of thought. 

Fourth. The comprehension of the notion is made clear 
by logical definition. 

The extension of the notion is made clear by logical divi- 
sion. 

The harmony of thought is made apparent by logical 
arrangement. 

§V. Logical Definition of Concepts. 

1. Logical Definition Defined. To illustrate logical defi- 
nition we will logically define the notion plane triangle. We 
observe individual plane triangles and find that each one is a 
plane bounded by lines, that each is bounded by straight 
lines, that the number of bounding lines in each is three. We 
have found the sum of the essential qualities of all plane tri- 
angles. This finding is logical definition. The first two of 
these essential qualities form the concept rectilinear figure, 
which is the genus of the concept plane triangle; the third 
quality is the specific difference of plane triangle. We have 
found the genus and, the specific difference of the concept 
plane triangle. 

Definition. Logical definition of a concept is finding the 
sum of the essential qualities of the concept, or, it is finding 
the genus and the specific difference of the concept. 

2. The Use of Logical Definition is to make the compre- 
hension of the concept clear, and separate it from all other 
concepts. 



128 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

3. The Expression of Logical Definition is made by a pro- 
position in which the subject represents the concept defined, 
and the predicate expresses the qualities which form the con- 
cept. 

4. Rules of Logical Definition. If we think, Every plane 
triangle is a rectilinear figure having three sides, the thought 
includes the sum of the essential qualities of the concept 
plane triangle, and the definition is adequate. If we think, 
Every plane triangle is a rectilinear figure, the thought is too 
broad in its extension. If we think, Every plane triangle is 
a rectilinear figure having three sides and no two sides equal, 
the thought is too narrow in its extension. Rule 1. Logical 
definition must be adequate, that is, must equal the sum of 
the essential quahties of the notion; if it includes less than 
the sum it is too broad, if it includes more, it is too narrow. 
In the logical definition the extension of the subject and 
predicate are equal. Hence, to apply this rule, if the con- 
verse of the proposition expressing the definition is true the 
definition is adequate. If we think. Every quart is a volume 
which is one-fourth of a gallon, the definition is adequate. If 
we think, Every quart is two pints, which means every quart 
is two half-quarts, or every quart is a quart; the thought is 
tautological, expressing the same thought in different words. 
Rule 2. Logical definition must not be tautological; that is, 
the concept must not be defined by itself. 

If we think, "Logic is the cynosure of truth," the word 
cynosure is not intelligible. If we think, " Logic is the physic 
of the mind," the word physic is ambiguous. If we think, 
"Logic is the Pharos of the understanding, " the word Pharos 
is figurative. If we think, "Logic is the knowledge which 
has for its object the laws of thought," the language is intel- 
ligible. Rule 3. Logical definition should be perspicuous; 
that is, should be expressed in language which is intelligible, 
not ambiguous, not figurative. 

A straight line is a line which has the same direction 
throughout. Affirmative. A curved line is a line no part of 
which is straight. Negative. The aflfirmative definition of 
a curved line is impossible, hence the negative form has to be 



THE MIND GENERALIZING. 129 

used, and may be used since there is only one other kind of 
line. Rule J/.. Logical definition should be affirmative if 
possible. 

Logical definition should conform to each one of the four 
rules. 

5. Application of Rules. Apply the rules to the follow- 
ing statements, to decide whether they are correct defini- 
tions: 

A geometrical figure is a surface or space limited on all 
sides. Inadequate. 

A geometrical figure is a surface or a volume having dis- 
tinctly defined boundaries. Adequate. 

A yard is three feet. Tautological. 

A yard is the primary unit of length established by law. 
Adequate. 

A rod is a length of five and one-half yards. Adequate. 

Geometry is the science of form. Not perspicuous. 

Geometry is the knowledge which has for its object the 
properties and relations of lines, angles, surfaces, and vol- 
umes. Adequate. 

Arithmetic is the science of numbers and the art of com- 
puting with them. Not perspicuous. 

Arithmetic is the knowledge which has for its object 
numbers, the expression of numbers, the operation on num- 
bers, and the relations of numbers. Adequate and perspic- 
uous. 

Geography is the description of the earth. Inadequate. 

Geography is the knowledge which has for its object the 
earth as the home of man. Adequate and perspicuous. 

6. Only Species. From the definition of logical defini- 
tion, it is evident that it applies only to concepts which have 
a genus and a specific difference, hence only species can be 
logically defined. 

7. An Individual is Defined by naming the class to which 
he belongs and giving a sufficient number of his peculiar 
marks to distinguish him from all other individuals of his 
class. Individual definition is required to identify the indi- 



130 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

vidual, as when a thing, or animal is "lost, strayed, or 
stolen," or a person has committed a crime. 

8. What Definition Requires. Definition begins with an 
illustration, that is, with one or more individuals which repre- 
sent the class to be defined; requires accurate observation of 
the individuals for definite knowledge of their qualities; pre- 
cise discrimination of the qualities in which they are alike; 
thinking together the like qualities into one concept; and 
accurate expression of the concept. 

§VI. Logical Division of Genera. 

1. Logical Division Defined. To illustrate logical division 
we will divide logically the genus plane figure taken from the 
subject of geometry. We formed this genus plane figure by 
taking from the species below its common qualities and leav- 
ing the specific differences of those species. By reversing 
this process, we find in the definition of the genus to be 
divided the specific differences, add them to the quality in 
the genus and form all the species of which the genus is 
composed. 

Noticing the quahty bounded by lines, in the definition of 
the genus given below, we find involved in it the two specific 
differences, straight lines and curved; adding these to the 
genuses, we find the two species of this genus — rectilinear 
figure and curvilinear figure. We have thus divided this 
genus into its species: 

The Genus. Plane figure is a plane bounded by lines. 

Plane bounded by lines, Plane bounded by lines, 

straight. curved. 

Species. Rectilinear figure. Curvilinear figure. 

We divide the two genera Rectilinear figure and Curvi- 
linear figure as shown below: 

The Genus. Rectilinear figure is a plane bounded by lines, straight. 

Plane b'ded by lines, Plane b'ded by lines, Plane b'ded by lines, 

straight, straight, straight, 

three. four. more than four. 

Species. Triangle. Quadrilateral. Polygon. 



THE MIND GENERALIZING. 131 

The Genus. Curvilinear figure is a plane bounded by a line, curved. 

Plane b'ded by a line, Plane b'ded by a line. Plane b'ded by a line, 
curved, curved, curved, 

circumference. elliptical. oval. 

Species. Circle. Ellipse. Oval. 

Definition. Logical division is finding the species of 
which a genus is composed by adding the specific differences 
to the quahties of the genus. 

We have reached the lowest species in this series. This 
species is composed of individuals. An individual cannot be 
divided. 

Varieties. The lowest species may vary in their parts, 
and may be divided into their varieties, as illustrated below: 

Plane triangles vary in relative length of their sides. 

No two sides equal. Two sides equal. Three sides equal. 
Scalene. Isosceles Equilateral. 

Triangles vary in relative size oj angles. 

One right angle. All angles oblique. 

Right angled. Clique angled, j Qbtuse! 

Quadrilaterals vary in relative direction of sides. 



Opposite sides parallel. Two sides parallel. No sides parallel. 

Parallelogram. Trapezoid. Trapezium. 

Parallelograms vary in relative size of angles. 

All right angles. All oblique angles. 

Right angled. Oblique angled. 

Right angled parallelograms vary in relative length of sides. 



All equal. Only opposite sides equal. 

Square. Rectangle. 

Obtuse angled parallelograms vary in relative length of sides. 

All equal. Only opposite sides equal. 

Rhombus. Rhomboid. 

Different species of fruit are divided into varieties, as 
the varieties of apples, of pears, of peaches, and plums. 

2. Logical Division Implies the definition of the genus 
which is to be divided, because in that we find the specific 
differences. 



132 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

3. The Use of Logical Division is to give the mind the 
distinct and complete knowledge of the extension of the con- 
cept. 

4. A Logical Division is Expressed by a disjunctive pro- 
position, in which the subject represents the genus divided, 
and the predicate represents the species; for example, Every 
rectilinear figure is either a triangle, or a quadrilateral, or a 
polygon. 

5. The Principle of Division is the specific difference 
found in the definition of the genus to be divided. 

6. Rules of Logical Division. If we attempt to divide 
the genus plane figure without any principle of division, or 
according to the number and kinds of bounding lines, we 
shall be in confusion. Rule 1. (Concerning the principle of 
division. ) Every division must have some one principle of 
division which must be an essential quality. 

In the division, Every geometrical figure is either a vol- 
ume, or a plane figure; species taken together are less than 
the genus. In the division, Every geometrical figure is either 
a volume, or a surface, or a line, or an angle; the species are 
more than the genus. In the division. Every geometrical 
figure is either a volume, or a surface, having distinctly 
defined limits; the species equal the genus. Rule 2. (Con- 
cerning the relation of the species to the genus. ) The species 
taken together must equal the genus. 

In the division, Every human action is either free, or 
beneficial. The species intersect. In the division. Every 
human action is either beneficial or detrimental. The species 
exclude each other. Rule 3. (Concerning the relation of 
the species to one another. ) The species must exclude one 
another. 

In the division. Every plane figure is either a polygon, or 
a circle, or an oval, there is confusion because we have 
passed over one division. Rule k. (Concerning the order 
of division. ) The division should proceed from the genus to 
the species next below. 

7. The Division of a Subject proceeds after the same 
manner as that of any other concept. We begin with defin- 



THE MIND GENERALIZING. 133 

ing the subject which presents it as a comprehensive whole; 
in the definition we find the specific differences which distin- 
guish the main divisions of the subject. We proceed in the 
same way with each main division and the subdivisions until 
the whole subject is completely outlined in the mind. Logical 
division requires that we consider definitely all the divisions 
of the subject. It gives a distinct and complete knowledge 
of the extension of the subject by showing all its parts in 
their relation to one another and to the whole. 

8. Basis of Arrangement. Logical definition and division 
are the basis of logical arrangement in the presentation of 
every subject. The teacher needs them in the arrangement 
of every subject. The teacher is to lead his pupils to think 
logically and to have a distinct and complete knowledge of 
the subjects studied by presenting a logical arrangement of 
the thoughts and requiring the pupil to follow this arrange- 
ment; the pupil thereby becomes habituated to this mode of 
thinking. 

9. The Mind Has Degrees of Knowledge. When we can 
discriminate the concept plane triangle from other concepts, 
we have a clear knowledge of it; when we cannot, the con- 
cept is obscure. When we know the qualities which define it 
we have a distinct knowledge of it; when we know only a 
part of these, our knowledge is indistinct. When we can not 
only define and divide the concept, but know all its proper- 
ties through reasoning, we have an adequate knowledge of it; 
when we know less of it, our knowledge is inadequate. 

We may know intuitively what a triangle, or a square, 
or a small number is; we know what a chiliagon, a figure of 
one thousand sides is, by its symbol. The knowledge of such 
a concept is symbolical. In large numbers in arithmetic, and 
in algebra, we deal chiefly with symbols— our knowledge 
then is symbolic. 

"Knowledge of the concept is either obscure or clear; 
either indistinct or distinct; either inadequate or adequate; 
either intuitive or symbolic. Perfect knowledge must be 
clear, distinct, adequate, intuitive; if it fails in any of these 



134 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

i-espects, it is more or less imperfect." This view of know- 
ledge is from Leibnitz, 

Some of our concepts are clear, a less number distinct, a 
very much smaller number adequate, and very few perfect. 
When one " knows but cannot tell," it shows that he has not 
reached distinct knowledge. The teacher must discriminate 
these different degrees of knowledge in the mind of his pupil, 
and adapt his teaching accordingly. 



CHAPTER XIV. 
THE MIND JUDGING. 

"Judgment is a special talent which cannot be taught, but must be 
practiced. ' ' — Kant. 

%l. Meaning of Judgment. 

1. Judgment. Judgment is involved in all thinking. We 
cannot assert the agreement or disagreement of one idea 
with another, as we do in the first stage of thought, without 
judging. This is the elementary form of judgment in which 
we assert any one thing of another. 

Definitiofi. Judgment in its logical meaning is the mind 
affirming or denying one concept of another. It means deter- 
mining directly the relation of two concepts. In the thought, 
Man is an animal, we compare the two concepts man and 
animal, and affirm their agreement. In the thought. No 
man is an angel, we compare the concepts man and angel, 
and deny their agreement. Each of these acts is a judgment. 
The mind judges of the relations which concepts hold, either 
in their comprehension or extension. The product of judging 
is a judgment. 

^ II. Parts of a Judgment. 

1. The Judgment Must Have Three Parts. The first 
part is the notion of which something is affirmed or denied, 
which is called the subject of the judgment; the second is the 
notion which is affirmed or denied of the subject, which is 
called the predicate; the third is the idea of the agreement 
or disagreement of the subject and predicate, which is called 
the copula. The subject and predicate are called the terms 
of the judgment, because they are definitely limited. 



136 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

^III. Expression of a Judgment. 

1. A Judgment is Expressed By a Proposition, that is, 
by a declarative sentence. The words which express the 
subject of the judgment are the subject of the proposition. 
The words which express the predicate of the judgment are 
the predicate of the proposition. The word or words which 
express the copula of the judgment are the copula of the 
proposition. In the proposition, no man is an angel, the 
word " man " is the subject; the words "an angel " are the 
predicate; the words "no" and "is" are the copula, the 
negation is expressed by the adjective no which modifies the 
subject man. Every proposition must express the three ideas 
of the judgment. A judgment is composed of ideas; a sen- 
tence is composed of words. 

^IV. Judgments are True or False. 

1. The Judgment is True or False. In judging we are 
seeking the reality of the relation of the two terms of the 
judgment. If we find this reality, the judgment we make is 
true. The judgment, Every man is mortal, is true because it 
agrees with what is. If we fail to find the reality of the 
relation, as we may, and often do, the judgment we make is 
false. The judgment. Every man is wise, is false, because it 
disagrees with what is. 

2. The Reason of False Judgment. False judgment may 
come from want of ability to judge, or from lack of know- 
ledge of the subject matter. Want of knowledge may come 
from the lack of observation to gain the primary ideas which 
enter into the concepts; or, from want of sufficient thought 
in the analysis of the concepts; or, from depending on the 
thought of others and not thinking for ourselves; or, from 
prejudging prompted by feeling without knowledge; or, from 
lack of experience in the line of the judgment. 

3. True Judgment, so far as knowledge is concerned, 
requires accurate observation; definite and independent 
thinking; the control of feeling to avoid prejudice; and the 
extension of our field of judging. 



THE MIND JUDGING. 137 

§V. Division of Judgments. 

1. According to Quality. Judgments are divided accord- 
ing to their quality, into Affirmative judgments w^hich assert 
the agreement of the subject and predicate, as Gold is a 
metal; and Negative judgments which assert the disagree- 
ment of the subject and predicate, as Gold is not easily 
fusible. 

2. According to Quantity. Judgments are divided ac- 
cording to their quantity into Universal judgments, in which 
the predicate agrees or disagrees with the whole of the sub- 
ject, as in the judgments. Every whale is an animal, No 
whale is a fish; and Particular judgments in which the predi- 
cate agrees or disagrees with a part of the subject, as in the 
judgments, Some men are wise. Some men are not wise. 

3. According to Convertibility. Judgments are divided 
according to their convertibility. Convertible judgments are 
those in which the extension of the subject equals that of the 
predicate, as in the judgments, Every plane triangle is a 
rectilinear figure having three sides; and. Every plane tri- 
angle has the sum of its angles equal to two right angles. 
The first of these judgments asserts the definition of the sub- 
ject, the second asserts a property of the subject, that is a 
quality which is essential but not used in the definition. 
Inconvertible judgments are those in which the extension of 
the subject is not equal to that of the predicate, as in the 
judgments, Every man is an animal; Every man is wise. 
The first of these judgments asserts the genus of the subject, 
the second, asserts an accident of the subject. 

Judgment is conditioned upon generalization, which 
gives the notions that we compare in judging. In judgment 
we assert the relation of the notions directly. 

§VI. Value of Trained Judgment. 

1. Its Fruit. Trained judgment makes a person effi- 
cient; independent in thinking; self-reliant; gives him self- 
respect and self-confidence; and fits him for large social ser- 
vice. These are elements of character of great value in 



138 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

every person, and pre-eminently valuable in the teacher, as 
an example for his pupils. 

2. Principles to be Applied. There are a few principles 
the teacher should constantly keep in mind and apply: 

First. Stimulate the pupil to observe, that he may gain 
ideas for his own thinking. 

Second. Require the pupil not only to acquire the know- 
ledge of facts, but to consider the uses of this knowledge. 

Third. Encourage the pupil to do his own thinking and 
give questions that will provoke thought. 

Fourth. Require the pupil to discuss his lessons; direct 
his thinking, but do not tell him what to think. 

Fifth. The main point is to give the pupil intelligent 
exercise in judging. 

Sixth. Lead the pupil to judge his fellows in the right 
spirit, and to remember the teaching of the Master. "For 
with what judgment ye judge, ye shall be judged; and with 
what measure ye mete, it shall be measured to you." "All 
things therefore whatsoever ye would that men should do 
unto you, even so do ye also unto them." 

Seventh. The mind judging is gaining clearer vision of 
the truth, a larger appreciation of beauty, a higher concep- 
tion of goodness. Judgment is the basic element in the study 
of science, of arts, and of morals. Training the judgment is 
a large factor in the education of the pupil. 



CHAPTER XV. 
THE MIND REASONING. 

What can we reason but from what we know. — Pope. 

§1. Reasoning in Its Broader Meaning. 

1. "Why We Reason. We judge that man is an animal 
immediately because we know the concept animal is included 
in the concept man. If we could know all things intuitively 
we should not reason. Our power to know intuitively is 
limited, and we have to learn some things through their rela- 
tion to other things. 

2. Reasoning Defined. We see a rainbow and we ask 
what causes it. We have learned that light is decomposed in 
passing through a prism, that the different colored rays are 
differently refracted, and that they are reflected from plane 
curved surfaces. We notice the direction of the sun's rays 
as they fall upon the raindrops, and infer that they are 
decomposed, refracted, and reflected as they pass through 
the raindrops, and thus the rainbow is produced. We find 
the cause of the rainbow through our knowledge of hght. 

Definition. This passing from a thing to its cause • 
through other knowledge is called reasoning. We reason 
when we explain things, or give reasons, or assign causes. 

3. We Reason from Experience. We say that we know 
that the sun will rise tomorrow morning. Strictly, what we 
know is that the sun has risen every morning in the past, 
and we infer from this experience that it will continue to rise 
in the future as it has in the past. We "feel the same cer- 
tainty of our conclusion that we do in the continuance of the 
laws of nature." We reason from experience when we infer 
from what has been in the past what will be in the future. 



140 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

4. By Experience is Meant the knowledge of material 
objects acquired by Sense Perception and the knowledge of 
mental objects acquired by the Inner Sense, either by one's 
own perception or by the perceptions of others. 

5. Primary Conditions of Experience. "Experience sup- 
poses as its primary condition a series of perceptions either of 
material phenomena or of mental phenomena which are 
associated and repeated so that they may be reproduced in 
memory and imagination. Experience further requires that 
there shall be a comparison together of the series of percep- 
tions acquired and reproduced, a mental separation of the 
different and a mental combination of the similar into con- 
cepts, for without concepts there can be no judgment, and 
without judgment there is no knowledge." 

6. Inference of Induction Defined. When we have ob- 
served that one man after another dies; that every species of 
horned animal we have known is cloven-footed; that every 
crow we have seen is black; and we have never heard of any 
exception to these observations; we are inclined to think that 
all men are mortal, that all horned animals are cloven-footed, 
that all crows are black. We are naturally inclined to carry 
over that which we have observed in many individuals of the 
class which have not been observed. 

Definition. Inference of Induction is the process of 
thought in which having observed that many individuals of a 
kind have a certain attribute, we infer that all the objects of 
the kind have this attribute. 

7. Principle of Induction. In Induction, we look to the 
one in many. "The principle of induction is that whatever 
belongs (or does not belong) to many things of the same 
kind, belongs (or does not belong) to all the things of the 
same kind." The general truths obtained by inference of 
induction are judgments that we use in probable reasoning. 
They give various degrees of probability but can never give 
absolute certainty. 

8. Inference of Analogy Defined. We have seen a man 
with bright, sharp, black eyes, and he was sarcastic and 
domineering. We see another man with such eyes, and we 



THE MIND REASONING. l4l 

infer that he is sarcastic and domineering. The physician 
observes in his patient some of the symptons of others who 
have had typhoid fever, and he infers that all the symptoms 
of this fever v^ill appear, that is, that his patient has typhoid 
fever. When we have observed that the second object re- 
sembles the first in several points, we are naturally inclined 
to conclude that it resembles the first in other points which 
we have not observed. 

Definition. Inference of Analogy is the process of 
thought in which, having observed that one object is like 
the other in several attributes, we conclude that it is like the 
other in the attributes which we have not observed. 

9. Principle of Analogy. In analogy, we look for many 
in one. The principle of analogy is * ' that things that have 
many observed attributes in common, have other not observed 
attributes in common." Inference of Analogy like Inference 
of Induction cannot give absolute certainty, only degrees of 
probability. 

10. Inductive in Forms. Inference from experience, in- 
ference of induction, and inference of analogy are all induc- 
tive, they proceed from the individual and the concrete to 
the general and the abstract; they are based directly upon 
observation, they give the illustration, then state the princi- 
ple, they furnish truths for probable reasoning, they are the 
beginning, the means of acquiring knowledge, of objective 
truth. 

§11. Reasoning in Its Logical Meaning. 

1. Probable Reasoning Defined. In Probable Reasoning 
we start with a subject notion and a certain predicate notion 
whose relation to each other is not manifest from the notions 
themselves. (1) For example, the subject notion man and 
the predicate notion free agent. I am in doubt concerning 
their agreement or disagreement and I ask. Is man a free 
agent or not? I must find a third notion which will enable 
me to decide. As I think of the notion free agent, I come 
upon the notion morally responsible agent, and then I think 
at once this third notion is comprehended under the notion 



142 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

free agent, and the notion man is contained under the notion 
morally responsible agent, then my doubt is gone and I must 
think that man is a free agent. Stating the relations of these 
three notions I have three judgments: 

1. Every morally responsible agent is a free agent; 

2. Man is a morally responsible agent; 

3. Therefore, man is a free agent. 

I have found that the subject notion and the predicate 
notion each agree with the same third notion, hence I judge 
them to agree with each other. This is an affirmative con- 
clusion. 

(2) We take another example of probable reasoning: Is 
the rat a carnivorous animal or not? In thinking of the sub- 
ject notion rat I come upon the notion rodent, and I think at 
once the notion rat is contained under the notion rodent, and 
that the notion rodent is not contained under the notion car- 
nivorous animal, then I must think that the notion rat is not 
contained under the notion carnivorous animal. Stating the 
relations of the notions I have three judgments: 

1. No rodent is carnivorous; 

2. The rat is a rodent; 

3. Therefore, the rat is not a carnivorous animal. 
Having found that the subject notion agrees and the 

predicate notion disagrees with the same third notion I must 
judge them to disagree with each other. This is a negative 
conclusion. 

Definitio7i. Probable reasoning is the act of mediate 
judgment, in which, finding that two notions agree with the 
same third notion, we judge them to agree; or, finding that 
one agrees and the other disagrees with the same third, we 
judge them to disagree. 

2. Principle of Affirmative Conclusion. In the first act 
of reasoning above, the relations of the three notions may be 
expressed to the eye by the relations of three circles, the 
largest circle inclosing all free agents, the middle circle 
placed within the largest including all morally responsible 
agents, the smallest circle placed within the middle including 
all men, thus showing that whatever is a part of a part must 



THE MIND REASONING. 143 

be a part of the containing' whole. This is the principle of 
affirmative conclusions. 

3. Principle of Negative Conclusion. In the second act 
the largest circle will enclose all carnivora, the middle placed 
outside the largest will include all the rodents, the smallest 
placed within the middle will include all rats, thus showing 
that when the middle whole is excluded from the largest 
whole every part of the middle whole must be excluded from 
the largest whole. This is the principle of negative conclu- 
sions. When the reasoning proceeds from the whole to the 
parts, as in this form of reasoning, it is called deductive. 

4. Terms and Premises. Every act of probable reason- 
ing must have three terms, the largest whole, called the 
major term; the smallest whole, called the minor term; and 
the middle whole, called the middle term; through which we 
find the relation of the major and the minor terms. This 
reasoning implies two judgments from which the third must 
follow. These two judgments from which the third is derived 
are called premises. The third, which must follow from 
these two, is called the conclusion. The premise which 
expresses the relation of the major and middle term is called 
the major premise, the premise which expresses the relation 
of the minor and middle term is called the minor premise, 
and the judgment which expresses the relation of the major 
term to the minor term is called the conclusion. An act of 
reasoning regularly and fully expressed, as in the illustra- 
tions above, is called a syllogism. 

5. Truth of Conclusion. If the premises be true and the 
reasoning correct the conclusion will be true. Since the pre- 
mises are derived by induction which gives only probability, 
we have in this form of reasoning the uncertainty connected 
with observation and testimony. In argument the disputant 
may refuse to admit the conclusion of his opponent either by 
denying the truth of the premises or by denying the correct- 
ness of his reasoning. 

6. Demonstrative Reasoning. In Demonstrative or Math- 
ematical Reasoning, we begin with an hypothesis, and see 
that each step of the reasoning, and the conclusion, is true 



144 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

beyond a doubt. We employ necessary truths. For example. 
/3 Suppose the straight line 3-4 meets the 

straight line 1-2 at the point 4. Erect the 
2 perpendicular 4-5 at this point. 

First act of reasoning, concerning angle 1-4-3. Every 
whole equals the sum of its parts; the angle 1-4-3 is a whole; 
therefore, 1-4-3 = the right angle plus the angle 5-4-3. 

Second act of reasoning, concerning the angle 3-4-2. 
Every part equals the whole less the other parts; the angle 
3-4-2 is a part; therefore the angle 3-4-2 = the right angle 
less the angle 5-4-3. 

Third act of reasoning, concerning these two conclusions. 
If equals be added to equals the sums will be equal; these 
conclusions are equals; therefore the angle 1-4-3 plus the 
angle 3-4-2 = two right angles. The reasoning begins with 
an hypothesis, we make such suppositions or constructions as 
are needed, as we go on, and the truth of each conclusion, on 
to the end, is made evident beyond the possibility of doubt. 
A demonstration is a course o/ reasoning which establishes 
the conclusion beyond the possibility of doubt. 

7. Principle of Demonstrative Reasoning. The principles 
on which this reasoning proceeds are equality and identity. 

8. Probable Conclusions. Probable reasoning is deduc- 
tive, it proceeds from the whole to the parts, from the gen- 
eral to the particular, it explains principles, it employs pro- 
bable truths, it furnishes the probable conclusions which are 
the basis of the probable sciences. 

9. Certain Conclusions. Demonstrative reasoning gives 

the absolutely certain conclusions upon which the exact 

sciences are founded. 

-T- ^1- rvu V 4. ■ \ The mind thinks, feels, chooses. 
10. Truth. The fact IS [ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^^g_ 

rru 4.x. 1,+ • I The mind thinks, feels, chooses. 
The thought IS [tj^^^^^^^^^^^^^^_ 

rru 4. + ^ Ar ■ i The mind thinks, feels, chooses. 
The statement is f rj.^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^^^ 

Truth is the agreement of our thought with its object, 
the fact. 



THE MIND REASONING. 145 

(1) Real truth is the agreement of the thought and 
statement with the fact. 

(2) Moral truth is the agreement of our thought with 
our statement. 

(3) Physical truth is the agreement of statement and 
fact. 

(4) The first truth, in the illustration, is a necessary- 
truth, so is " two and three are five." A necessary truth is 
one which must be true, one which we cannot think other- 
wise without absurdity. The second truth in the illustration 
is a probable truth which is truth that has more evidence for 
than against it, yet admits of doubts. 

11. Certainty Defined. When we know or believe a pro- 
position, we think or feel that it must be as it is presented, 
we cannot think or feel it otherwise. Certainty is the con- 
sciousness of the necessity of what we know or believe. 
"Knowledge is a certainty founded upon insight. Belief is 
a certainty founded upon feeling. The one is perspicuous 
and objective; the other is obscure and subjective. Each, 
however, supposes the other, and an assurance is said to be a 
knowledge or belief, according as one element or the other 
predominates." 

12. Inference and Proof. When we infer, we are seeking 
the truth contained in the premises; when we prove, we are 
seeking to show that a given hypothesis is true; we reason 
in both acts, but to a different end. In court, one lawyer 
seeks to prove that the person accused is innocent; the oppos- 
ing counsel seeks to prove that the accused is guilty. These 
lawyers are advocates. The judge seeks to infer the truth 
from the evidence. Every seeker after truth should hold his 
mind open to its reception from whatever source it may come. 
The advocate often shuts off the truth he does not desire to 
use. 

13. Relation of Generalization and Judgment. Generaliza- 
tion is the comparison of individual objects to find their com- 
mon qualities and to combine these into concepts, which are 
made permanent by language; and the comparison of con- 
cepts to form a series of concepts and classes. 



146 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

Judgment is the immediate comparison of concepts to 
find their relation. 

Reasoning is mediate judgment, the comparison of two 
concepts through the medium of a third concept to find their 
relation. Generalization is the condition for Judgment and 
Reasoning. 



CHAPTER XVI. 
THE MIND SYSTEMATIZING. 

Order gave each thing view. — Shakespeare. 

§1. Illustration of Systematizing. 

1. Systemization" What does the mind do with the 
thoughts it acquires by judging and reasoning of the rela- 
tions of concepts? The answer is, it seeks, in relation to 
itself, to know what it knows clearly, distinctly, completely, 
and in connection; and in relation to the object known, it 
seeks to know that what is known has a true and real exis- 
tence, that is, it seeks to make the truths it knows in relation 
to itself and other objects stand together in unity and form a 
science, and seeks to form a system of sciences. It uses the 
products of generalizing, judging, and reasoning to this end. 
In a word it systematizes its knowledge. 

The principles of the several branches of knowledge 
which constitute the course of studies in the public schools 
have been systematized into sciences. It is only by the study 
of the principles of each branch in their systematic arrange- 
ment for teaching that the teacher can learn the method of 
teaching each subject as a means to the education of his 
pupils. The study of systemization is therefore a matter of 
primary importance to every teacher. 

To illustrate systemization we will proceed to systematize 
the subject of 

ARITHMETIC. 

An elementary course of study upon the facts of num- 
bers must precede the study of the subject as a science. 
Definition of the abstract terms used in the science are 
required. 



148 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

1. The first step is to bring the subject as a whole 
before the mind by defining it. The definition presents the 
subject as a whole (not the whole of the subject) by separat- 
ing it from other subjects. 

2. In Arithmetic we deal with numbers, hence number 
is the first term to be defined. Number is the necessary idea 
which springs in the mind whenever we distinguish more 
than one from one, as when we perceive several oranges. A 
number answers the questions, How many objects? How 
many units of measure in any mass? One is a number 
because it is the basis of all numbers. A number is one or 
a collection of ones. 

3. Numbers are to be expressed. The number expressed 
by the word five, the figure 5, and by the letter V, shows 
that numbers are expressed in three ways, by words, by 
figures, and by letters. 

4. Numbers are combined. We may increase a number 
by adding, or multiplying; or diminish a number by sub- 
tracting, or dividing. Combination of numbers is the opera- 
tions by which they are increased or diminished. 

5. Numbers hold relatione to one another. Five is one- 
half of ten; ten is two-thirds of fifteen. 

6. The definition of Arithmetic may now be stated as 
follows: Arithmetic is the branch of knowledge which has 
for its object the numbering of objects; the expression of 
numbers; the combination of numbers; and the relations of 
numbers. 

7. By analysis of the definition we find that the subject 
has four main divisions as follows: 

Numbering objects, or Numeration. 

The expression of numbers, or Notation. 

The combination of numbers. 

The relations of numbers, or Fractions and Ratio. 

NUMERATION. 

By analysis of the first main division we find the follow- 
ing subdivisions: 



THE MIND SYSTEMATIZING. 



149 



1. The counting 0/ objects. Noting them one by one 
and giving the number. 

2. The principle of numbering. Let it be required to 
find how many dots there are in group one, then how many 
in group two: 



.' > • * 






< > — 
* . ' * 



The attempt to number the dots in the first group shows 
that numbering objects depends upon arranging them in 
groups with a definite number in each group. Group two is 
easily numbered. The principle of numbering is that ten 
units of one order make one of the next higher order. 

Notice further that one thousand ones is one thousand; 
one thousand thousands is one million; one thousand milhons 
is one billion, one thousand bilHons is one trillion. We count 
the larger numbers in thousands. 

3. The order of units. 

Million, 

Ten-million, 

Hundred-million, 

Billion, 

Ten-billion, 

Hundred-billion, 

4.. The system of numbering objects is counting the 
objects in the regular order of dependence according to the 
principle of numbering. 

NOTATION. 

By the analysis of the second main division of the sub- 
ject we find the following subdivisions: 
1. The system of naming numbers. 



One, 

Ten, 

Hundred, 

Thousand, 

Ten-thousand, 

Hundred-thousand, 



Trillion, 

Ten-trillion, 

Hundred-trillion, 

Quadrillion, 

Ten-quadrillion, 

Hundred-quadrillion, etc. 



150 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

(1) The principle of naming numbers is the combining 
of the names of the numbers united. 

(2) The system of naming numbers is the using of the 
names of the numbers in the regular way of the formation of 
the numbers. 

2. Arabic Notation. 

(1) Notation is the expression of ideas by characters. 

(2) Arabic notation is the expression of all numbers by 
ten figures. 

(3) Principles of Arabic notation. 

Each figure always expresses the same number of units. 

Each figure expresses units of the order of the place it 
occupies. 

Each figure in any place expresses ten times what it 
would in the next place to the right. 

Each figure in any place expresses one-tenth what it 
would in the next place to the left. 

(4) The system of Arabic notation is the expression of 
numbers by ten different figures used successively in differ- 
ent places, each figure being used in each place as many 
times as the name of the place indicates. 

3. Roman Notation. 

(1) Roman notation is the expression of all numbers by 
seven letters. 

(2) Principles of Roman notation. 

Repeating a letter indicates the repetition of the number 
expressed by the letter. 

Placing a letter after another expressing a larger number 
indicates the addition of the numbers. 

Placing a letter before another expressing a larger num- 
ber indicates the subtraction of the smaller number. 

Placing a straight Hne above a letter indicates the multi- 
plication of the number by one thousand. 

(3) The system of Roman notation is the expression of 
all numbers by seven different letters used in relative posi- 
tions. 



THE MIND SYSTEMATIZING. 151 

COMBINATION OF NUMBERS. 

By analysis of the third main division we find the follow- 
ing subdivisions: 

1. All numbers are united by the process of addition, 
and separated by the process of subtraction. 

2. Equal numbers are united by the process of multi- 
plication and separated by the process of division. 

3. Addition—the principle, the process and its verifica- 
tion, the rule. 

Jf. Subtraction — the principle, the process and its verifi- 
cation, the rule. 

5. Multiplication— the. principle, the process and its 
verification, the rule. 

6. Division— the principle, the process and its verifica- 
tion, the rule. 

7. Properties of numbers — Factors, Multiples, Powers, 
Roots. 

RELATION OF NUMBERS. 

By the analysis of the fourth main division we find the 
following subdivisions: 

1. The fraction and fractional numbers; 

2. The expression of fractions, — finding equivalent ex- 
pressions; 

3. Addition of fi-actions, — the process and the rule; 

^. Subtraction of a fraction, — the process and the rule; 

5. Multiplication of a fraction, — the process and the 
rule; 

6. Division of a fraction,— the process and the rule; 

7. The relations of fractions; 

8. Ratio and projjortion. 

We have now made the analysis of pure Arithmetic. 

The illustration and definition of the terms used makes 
the comprehension of the subject clear. 

The division and subdivision of the subject gives a dis- 
tinct and complete view of its extension. 

The science of Arithmetic is the principles of the subject 
systematically arranged. 



152 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

APPLICATIONS OF ARITHMETIC. 

The applications of Arithmetic to denominate numbers, 
to mensuration, and to the various problems in the business 
affairs of life are numerous. 

The solution of problems is two-fold. It calls for rea- 
soning to work from the conditions given to what is required, 
and then the performance of the arithmetical process which 
the conditions require. 

Defiyiition. Systemization is bringing into logical ar- 
rangement the principles of any branch of knowledge so that 
they stand in unity and form a science. 

2. Science Defined. (1) A science is the principles of 
any branch of knowledge systematically arranged. 

(2) " Science is knowledge evident and certain in itself 
or by the principle from which it is deduced, or with which 
it is certainly connected. It is subjective as existing in a 
mind; — objective as embodied in truths, — speculative, as 
resting in the attainment of truths, as in physical science - 
practical, as leading to do something, as in ethical science." 

3. Systemization in Its Further Application is employed 
to bring the different sciences in the field of human know- 
ledge into logical arrangement with one another so that they 
stand together in one comprehensive system. 

Note, for illustration, the relation of the different 
branches of mathematics-Geometry, Arithmetic, and Alge- 
bra. The science of Geometry is the earhest and the simplest 
of the sciences. It deals purely with space. It is the logical 
arrangement of the principles of the properties and relations 
of lines, angles, surfaces, and volumes. It includes the 
sciences of plane geometry, volumetric geometry, descriptive 
geometry, trigonometry, and analytical geometry. The 
science of Arithmetic deals purely with numbers and comes 
next to Geometry. The science of Algebra deals with ideas 
of time, or progression, and follows arithmetic. 

The knowledge of the mathematical sciences is a condi- 
tion for the study of the sciences relating to the material 
world; the sciences of Physics, Chemistry, Physiology, 



THE MIND SYSTEMATIZING. 153 

Botany, and Zoology. And so we may go on to the system- 
atic arrangement of all the sciences until we form the one 
great comprehensive system of the universe of matter and 
mind. 

§ II. The Logical Phases of Thought. 

1. Gradual Development. The young mind deals with 
the concrete, that is, with the individual, the particular ob- 
ject. Perception, memory, imagination take the lead in the 
mental activity of the young in acquiring elementary know- 
ledge. As the pupil advances through youth and young 
manhood reflection increases, and the mind seeks to know 
the relations and causes of things. The development of the 
power of abstract thinking is gradual. 

The teacher must make much use of illustration in lead- 
ing his pupil from observation of individual objects to the 
formation of concepts and definite, general, abstract, or 
scientific thinking. Much care will be needed in extending 
the pupil's vocabulary so as to gain intelligent command of 
general terms in the expression of abstract thought. Illus- 
trations from the formation of geometrical concepts are very 
helpful at first, because geometrical terms are exact, have 
only one meaning, and make the thought shine out definitely, 
briefly, distinctly. 

2. Cultivation of Thoughtfulness. Much attention needs 
to be given to the logical phases of thought and expression, 
for the very good reason that thoughtfulness, is the strength 
of our life; the bedrock on which we lay the foundations of 
truth, beauty, and goodness. If we do not sow the seeds of 
thoughtfulness in the mellow soil of young lives and cultivate 
the habit as life moves on, surely the enemy will sow the 
seeds of thoughtlessness that will spring and grow up to 
choke the life of the soul. Superficial thinking and flippant 
expression are super-abundant in the individual and social 
life of today. The wise man says, "Take fast hold of 
instruction; let her not go; keep her; for she is thy life." 
Without the culture of thoughtfulness, our thinking must be 
weak, our whole life must be superficial. 



154 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

3. " The Possibilities of Thought Training Are Infinite, 
its consequences eternal. There can be no more important 
study, no higher duty owed to ourselves and those about us, 
than this of thought control, of self-control, which results in 
self-development. ' ' 

§111. Method in Study. 

1. Study Defined. (1) Study implies an object of 
thought of which the mind would acquire knowledge. The 
object of thought may be a material object or a mental object 
considered in itself as an individual. It may be the relations 
which individual objects hold to one another. It may be the 
forces or powers which cause objects. It may be the logical 
arrangement of the principles of a branch of knowledge as a 
science. It may be the book, the record of the thoughts of 
observers and thinkers in different branches of knowledge. 

(2) Study implies concentration and continuity of 
thought upon the object of thought with the purpose to gain 
as much knowledge of the object as possible. The thought 
implies observation, memory, imagination. Study is to be dis- 
tinguished from reading. Reading may be an instrument of 
study, or it may be simply for information or for amusement. 

(3) Study implies zeal and interest to sustain the con- 
centration and continuity of thought. 

(4) Study may be under the stimulus and direction of 
an instructor. The larger part of the study in schools is 
under this influence. Or the study may be by one's self 
under the stimulus of his purpose to meet the requirements 
of his life. 

(5) Definition. Study is the concentration and continu- 
ity of thought upon an object or subject with zeal and inter- 
est, with the purpose to gain from this work all possible 
knowledge and power. 

2. Method. Method is the orderly way of proceeding to 
the attainment of an end. The orderly way of proceeding to 
the attainment of the ends of study is to follow the conditions 
of the normal activity of the mind in thinking and knowing. 



THE MIND SYSTEMIZING. 155 

3. Method of Study. We find that in acquiring knowl- 
edge of any single object by observation we proceed analyti- 
cally from the whole object to its parts, qualities, and uses, 
and then think together what we have learned. In the study 
of any subject we proceed analytically from the subject as a 
whole to its division and subdivisions, and then think 
together what we have thought out separately; from which 
we learn that the true method of study is analysis followed 
by synthesis, which must result in system. 

§IV. Elaboration of Thought. 

1. Modes of Elaboration. Elaboration has four modes, 
generalizing, judging, reasoning, and systematizing. 

In generalization, we analyze the ideas of individual 
objects, think together their common qualities, form the con- 
cept, name it, group under it all the individuals which have 
the common qualities and form the class, in which all the 
individuals are alike, thus reducing the many to one. We do 
the same with concepts and form series of concepts and 
classes. 

In judging, we compare two concepts directly and assert 
their agreement or disagreement. 

In reasoning, we acquire the knowledge of some things 
through the knowledge of others, by mediate judgment. 

In systematizing, we bring the principles of a subject 
into logical arrangement and form a science and system. 

The right method of study is analysis followed by syn- 
thesis. 

2. The Condition of Elaboration in generalization is the 
possession of distinct ideas of individual objects; in judging 
and reasoning, the possession of clear and distinct concepts; 
in systemization, the knowledge gained by generalization, 
judgment, and reasoning. 

3. The Products of Elaboration are knowledge of classes 
and their relations, and knowledge of causes; the power to 
think logically and to express accurately. The product of 
comparison is knowledge of differences and resemblances; of 
abstraction, abstract ideas; of generalization, concepts, and 



156 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

general terms; of judgment and reasoning, general truths, 
and principles; of systemization, science, and systems. 

4. The Principle of Education derived from the study of 
the elaborate power is, — The pupil must be trained to logical 
thinking and effective expression. 

§V. Summary of the Mind Thinking. 

1. Modes of Intellectual Activity. Reason in Intellect 
originates rational intuitions which regulate our thinking. 

Sensation is subjective in which the mind is affected and 
brought into relation with external objects. 

Presentation in Sense Perception is objective in which 
the mind goes out to the object of its thought and through 
sensation and attention gives distinct ideas of material 
objects. 

Presentation in the Inner Sense through consciousness 
and attention gives distinct ideas of mental objects. 

Representation in Memory through attention, association, 
and repetition gives distinctly similar past mental states. 

Representation in Imagination by attention, abstraction, 
and combination gives images of actual and ideal objects. 

Elaboration in Generalization forms concepts and gen- 
eral terms, reducing many to one, and forms series of con- 
cepts and classes. 

Elaboration by Judging gives immediately the relation of 
concepts. 

Elaboration by Reasoning gives mediately the relation of 
concepts. 

Elaboration by Systematizing gives the logical arrange- 
ment of principles insciences, and system. 

2. Products of Intellectual Activity. (1) Knowledge of 
facts, or elementary knowledge. 

Knowledge of relations and causes, or scientific know- 
ledge. 

Knowledge of language. 

(2) Power to observe accurately; to remember and 
imagine vividly; to think logically; to express easily and 
effectively. 



CHAPTER XVII. 
THE MIND FEELING. SENSIBILITY. 

God made man to go by motives and he will not go without them. 

— H. W. Beecher. 

Motives are everything. — Horace Mann. 

§ I. Sensibility. 

1. The Study of Sensibility. We learn in the study of 
Intellect how we acquire, retain, and elaborate knowledge. 
We come now to the study of Sensibility in joint action with 
the Intellect, to find the different modes of Sensibility and 
the conditions and products of their activity. 

2. Sensibility Defined. Sensibility is the capacity to 
enjoy or suffer, to feel pleasure or pain, as we think. 

3. Condition of Sensibility. As thinking beings we have 
the original capacity to feel as we think. We feel because 
we think, the Intellect is the condition of all the higher forms 
of feeling. Sensibility does not include sensation. Sensa- 
tions are feelings which arise from changes in the body. 

4. Varieties of Feeling. Since feeling must accompany 
thinking and willing there are as many varieties of feeling as 
there are distinct modes of mental activity. 

{1) Feeling in perception. We look with pleasure upon 
a smooth green lawn and a well kept garden, and with un- 
pleasant feeling upon a disorderly yard and a dirty street. 
We listen with delight to a sweet melody, and with displeas- 
ure to discordant notes. 

{2) Feeling in memory and imagination. We revel in 
the pleasure accompanying the memory of past joys, and 
feelings of shame and regret are awakened by the unpleasant 
memories of the past. We dwell with pleasure upon the 



158 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

bright anticipations of success, and are made miserable by 
the dread of failure, which the imagination pictures. 

(3) Feeling in thought, duty, and loorship. We have 
the pleasure of victory in thinking out a hard problem, and 
the unpleasant depression of defeat upon failing to solve it. 
We have the feeling of obligation to do what we judge to be 
right, the feeling of approbation when we have done right, 
and the feeling of guilt when we have done wrong. We have 
feelings of adoration, praise, and thanksgiving as we con- 
template the greatness, the glory, and goodness of God. 

5. Position of Feeling. The character and rank of the 
feeling varies with the object of knowledge which awakens 
the feeling. We choose the object which excites the agree- 
able feeling, and refuse the object which awakens the dis- 
agreeable feeling. Feeling is the condition for choice and 
action, hence its great importance. Feeling is intermediate 
between thinking and willing. Thinking begets feeling, 
feeling inspires, will executes. 

6. Centers of Feeling. In childhood, when knowledge 
and experience are limited, the feelings naturally center 
largely about self. As knowledge increases and experience 
broadens, the sphere of feeling is steadily enlarging. In 
early adolescence the feeling for other selves is prominently 
manifest. As the sphere of knowledge and experience con- 
tinues to widen, in later adolesence and on through maturity, 
the ideals of truth, beauty, and goodness are more prominent 
and the feelings center more fully about these ideals. 

7. Classes of Feelings. The feelings which center in 
self as love of self, of pleasure, of possession, pride, and 
vanity are called egoistic feelings. The feelings which center 
about others, as love and hate, friendship, respect, emula- 
tion, and sympathy are called altruistic feelings. The feel- 
ings which center about ideals of truth, beauty, and goodness 
are called ideal feelings. The egoistic, altruistic, and ideal 
feelings continue on through life with varying degrees of 
relative strength according to the experience and cultivation 
of the person. 

8. Relation of Feeling to Nervous Energy. When any 



THE MIND FEELING. SENSIBILITY. 159 

person, especially a child or a youth, is rested and full of 
nervous energy, he feels pleasure in working off this nervous 
energy in a normal way. Herein is the pleasure of games 
and of manual work. When one is weary there is pleasure 
in resting while the nervous energy is being restored. When- 
ever we continue the effort beyond the normal supply of 
nervous energy, there comes a feeling of pain. Strong feel- 
ing reduces nervous energy. This is why worry, fear, and 
grief are so exhausting. The function of /pain seems to be 
to tell us when we have reached the limit of proper exercise, 
and to give a just appreciation of pleasurable feeling. 

§11. Rational Intuitions of Intellect and Sensi- 
bility. 

There are certain ideas and emotions which spring spon- 
taneously in every mind as the sensibiHty in joint action with 
the different modes of thinking is awakened. They are the 
joint product of thought and feeling, and they regulate our 
thinking and feeling. 

First, is the Idea and Emotion of a Good. Given, the 
capacity to enjoy and suffer and the object which awakens in 
us an agreeable feeling must he thought good. For example, 
the food which we know as having an agreeable flavor we 
say is good; the games which afford us pleasure we say are 
good; and the person who awakens in us a friendly feeling 
we say is good. Any object known which affords enjoyment 
must be thought good. And the enjoyment must be regarded 
as a good. 

It is not true that every object which affords us enjoy- 
ment is beneficial to us, stimulants and narcotics may be 
agreeable but may not be beneficial; but so long as the object 
gives us enjoyment it is alluring, we are drawn to it as some- 
thing we think to be good. This is the natural action of the 
mind. The idea and emotion of good is fundamental in our 
mental activity. If there were not a good which appealed to 
us there would be nothing to choose, no motive to choice. 

Definition. A good is the fundamental, necessary, and 
universal idea and emotion given by sensibility on occasion 



160 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

of our knowing any object which affords us enjoyment. 

(1) A good and goodness. We must carefully distin- 
guish between a good and goodness. A good is given by the 
normal action of the sensibility, it is regarded as something 
valuable in itself, it is therefore a motive to choice, but it 
does not have a moral quality. Goodness is the state of 
being morally good. Persons are morally good when their 
moral choices are right, hence "goodness is given by the 
normal action of the will." 

(2) Sources of a good. * ' The product of sensibility is 
a good, a feeling of enjoyment. The good may be from the 
action upon our organization of those surroundings which 
God has so wonderfully correlated to it; or from our indepen- 
dent activity; or from the interaction of our minds with 
other minds; or, which is highest of all, from such spiritual 
revelations as God can make of Himself directly, and not 

through his works Always, however induced, there 

is an activity of our own from which the enjoyment is the 
immediate outcome as the fragrance is from the flower." 

(3) The not good. The object which awakens in us a 
disagreeable feeling we must regard as not good. It is true 
that we are capable of suffering to the same extent that we 
are capable of enjoying, but suffering is not dominant, the 
sensibility was constituted to give a good. 

A merchant has goods on sale. They are goods because 
they are desired by customers for the enjoyment they will 
afford. If no one desires the articles they will not sell and 
they cease to be goods. 

Second, is the Idea and Emotion of Beauty. When we 
see the solar spectrum on the screen, or the rainbow on the 
cloud, it appeals to our sense of the perfect in color and there 
springs in the mind the necessary idea and emotion of 
beauty. The question What is beauty? has been much dis- 
cussed. Some have said it belongs to the object, it is an idea. 
Others have said, it is a feeling; as such it must be what it is 
felt to be in the mind. The better view is that it is the joint 
product of thought and feeling. 

Definition. Beauty is the necessary and universal idea 



THE MIND FEELING. SENSIBILITY. 161 

and emotion given by sensibility when the object adapted to 
awaken it is known. 

(1) Beautiful objects. It is not all objects that awaken 
this emotion. We call those which are adapted to awaken it 
beautiful. Bright and delicate colors, and simple, regular, 
and symmetrical forms are adapted to awaken this emotion. 
Generous, noble, unselfish conduct is beautiful. Some minds 
are much more appreciative of beauty than others. "It is 
his who has the eye to see it." 

2 Basis of personal beauty. Orison Swett Marden in 
Every Man a King, says, "The basis of all real beauty is a 
kindly, helpful heart, and a desire to scatter sunshine and 
good cheer everywhere, and this, shining through the face, 
makes it beautiful. The longing and the effort to be beauti- 
ful in character cannot fail to make the life beautiful, and 
since the outward is but an expression of the inward, a mere 
outpicturing on the body of the habitual thought and domi- 
nating motives, the face, the manners, the bearing, muse 
follow the thought, and become sweet and attractive. If you 
hold the beauty thought, the love thought, persistently in the 
mind, you will make such an impression of harmony, of 
sweetness, and soul beauty wherever you go that no one 
will notice any plainness or deformity you may possess." 

Third, is the Idea and Emotion of The Ludicrous. No 
one can see a daintily dressed fop tumble into the mud with- 
out having the idea and the emotion of the ludicrous. It is 
awakened by perceiving objects come into relation which are 
not naturally associated. 

Definition. The Ludicrous is the necessary and univer- 
sal idea and emotion given by sensibility on the occasion of 
perceiving some form of incongruity. This sensitivity is the 
condition of the ludicrous, of wit, ridicule, humor, fun, and 
drollery in all their forms. It is an element of rational life, 
it is denied to brutes. 

4. Affective Reason. The power which orginates these 
necessary ideas and emotions is called the Affective Reason. 
It is reason manifest in the sensibility, affective in that it has 
the element of feeling in its products. 



162 the teacher in modern life. 

§111. The Appetites. 

The natural appetites were considered in the study of 
the body. These physical feelings have a strong influence 
upon our choice and action and require careful consideration 
and control. "As the means of sustaining and continuing 
the race, they are the condition of all forms of the Sensi- 
bility." 

§IV. The Instincts. 

1. Instinct Defined. Instinct is the natural inward 
prompting to action without any conscious end in view. In- 
stinct is needed where Intellect cannot act. Instinct directs 
to ends, but presupposes that means and conditions are sup- 
plied by intelligence outside itself. Immediately on feeling the 
impulse, the bee proceeds to build the honey-comb, the duck 
to swim, the bird to build his nest, the beaver to build his 
dam. 

The new born child has no knowledge or experience to 
direct him; he must act wholly from instinct at first, and one 
instinct after another appears as a new form of activity is 
needed. At birth, he has the instinct to suck, to cry for his 
food, to carry every thing to his mouth; to bite when the 
teeth are coming; the instinct to sit up, to creep, to walk, to 
speak, to imitate his fellows, to emulate them, to play; the 
instinct of sociability, of sympathy, of self preservation. 
This is not a complete list of our instincts. 

2. Experience and Knowledge Modify Instinctive Action. 
Some forms of activity are no longer necessary and the in- 
stinct to act that way ceases, as crying for food is no longer 
necessary when speech comes. Other instincts, as self-pre- 
servation, are needed through life and continue to act in a 
modified form. 

3. The Play Instinct is an Essential of Life, both in ani- 
mals and in human beings. Each species has play peculiar 
to itself. The birds play in a way peculiar to them; dogs 
after their manner; cats in their way; monkeys in another 
way; and children in their own way. Animals and children 



THE MIND FEELING. SENSIBILITY. 163 

are self-active beings, and as such play, which is activity as 
an end, is a delight and a necessity. 

4. Play a Delight, Play is a delight because it has free- 
dom and gives happiness. The child at play is free to take 
the initiative. He may make his own plans, follow his own 
ideals, originate, and construct as he pleases. 

5. Play a Necessity. Play is necessary for the develop- 
ment of the child and the youth, it brings his whole self, 
body and mind, into exertion. In games and sports, he 
comes into competition with his fellows, he must be keen to 
observe, quick to decide, prompt to execute, must exert all 
his power, endure hardness, and learn how to accept victory 
or defeat as it comes. "Play is as necessary to a child as 
food, as vital as sunshine, as indispensable as air." 

6. Play is Nature's Way of Training. Play seems to be 
nature's way of training the young in the very activities 
which they must seriously practice later on in life. It gives 
a relish for exertion, and prepares the way for work. Work 
differs from play in being activity for an end instead of 
activity as an end. In work, we have an end before us 
which we desire to gain, and we persistently exert ourselves 
till the end is accomplished. Having in play felt the joy of 
whole souled activity as an end, we have only to associate 
this joy with whole souled activity for an end. This may be 
accomplished by awakening a strong desire for the end we 
are to work for. Work and play are not antagonistic, each 
is the complement of the other, and each gives zest to the 
other. Both are necessary. Life means work, and work 
means relaxation in play. 

7. Play Shows Aptitudes. The best opportunity for 
learning a child's tendencies and aptitudes is when he is at 
play freely following his bent. It happens not unfrequently 
that the teacher is annoyed by a boy full of fun and frolic, 
when he is cutting up his capers. The teacher should regard 
the lively play instinct as a hopeful indication of power to 
work. 

8. The Instinct of Imitation is Prominent in Every Life. 
The child is born into a world of incessant activity with in- 



164 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

numerable ways of acting to learn, which are necessary to 
his welfare and to placing him in pleasant relations with his 
fellows; hence, he has the instinct of imitation. "Imitation 
is one of the earliest, deepest, strongest of human instincts." 
9. Unconscious Imitation. The young child imitates 
without choice the ways of acting by those with whom he lives. 
He imitates their ways of eating, drinking, sitting, walking, 
talking, dressing, and doing almost everything. As he grows 
older he takes views of Hfe, of its achievements, and of its 
social standards, similar to those possessed by those with 
whom he is most intimately associated. His manners, his 
language, his conduct, and his standards of action are very 
strongly influenced by the tendency to think and act as 
others do. This tendency is the root of the controlling power 
of fashion. 

10. The Individuality of the Person Modifies His Ten" 
dency to Imitate. Some persons are thoroughly inclined to 
be followers, other persons of greater individuahty and intel- 
ligence are stimulated by what they see others do to take the 
initiative in independent action. 

11. "What Models do Children of Younger or Older 
Growth Imitate? We cannot answer that they imitate the 
good and not the bad. Rather their unreflective deeds are 
almost indifferent to this distinction. But the interesting 
deeds, the fascinating, the compelling, even the inherently 
uninteresting deeds of interesting people; the deeds of a 
supposed superior; and the deeds of the heroes of all times, 
— all these catch their attention, appeal to native interests, 
solicit action. The children imitate the captivating fellow, 
the play-ground leader, their parents, the teachers they like, 

and the characters in their favorite stories The 

striking personalities about the child, and the heroes of 
story, biography, history, — these make the virtues imitable 
to children, these are the examples that influence." 

— Dr. H. H. Home. 



THE MIND FEELING. SENSIBILITY. 165 

§V. The Emotions. 

1. Emotions Defined. Emotions are transient feelings 
which vary with the object of thought. We unexpectedly 
meet a friend, we are much moved and the feeling finds ex- 
pression in cordial greetings. We hear of the death of a 
friend, we are deeply moved and our feeeling is manifested 
in expressions of grief. We observe a bright healty little 
child and the face brightens with delight. We observe a 
deformed child and the face saddens with an expression of 
pity. We think of one who has done us a great favor and 
we are moved to the lively expression of appreciation. We 
think of one who has insulted us and we are strongly moved 
to an expression of our anger. 

Definition. Emotions are feelings which arise from what 
we perceive or think and manifest their existence and char- 
acter by some sensible effects upon the body. 

2. There are Two Classes of Emotions. Agreeable emo- 
tions, Disagreeable emotions. We may also distinguish the 
coarser emotions, those in which the bodily expression is 
prominent, as fear, joy, anger, grief, jealousy; and the Uner 
emotions, in which the bodily expression is small, as self- 
respect, sympathy, wonder, and the esthetic emotions. 

3. Sad Emotions. ' ' Whatever tends to produce, prolong, 
or intensify the sad emotions is wrong, whether it be dress; 
drama, or what-not. Happiness is a means rather than an 
end— it creates energy, promotes growth, and nutrition, and 
prolongs life. The emotions and other feelings give us all 
there is of [enjoyment in life, and their scientific study and 
rational training constitute an important step in the art of 
using the mind more skilfully and efficiently. By proper train- 
ing the depressing emotions can be practically eliminated 
from life, and the good emotions rendered permanently 
dominant." 

§VI. The Desires. 

1. Desires Defined. There are certain goods which are 
essential to the unfolding and perfecting of the mind and 



166 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

there are natural cravings for these needs of the mind, 
which are called desires. 

The Desires are cravings which arise from the needs of 
the mind and which have for their object the well-being of 
the mind. 

2. Specific Desires. (1) The mind is self-active, to act 
it must continue to exist, hence, it must have the Desire of 
Continued Existence. 

(2) The mind cannot enjoy existence unless it can hold 
the things which it needs as its own, hence, it must have the 
Desire of Property. 

(3) The mind must come into conscious relation to 
nature and men, it must know them, hence, it must have the 
Desire of Knowledge. 

(4) The mind must be able to use itself and to become 
what it is capable of becoming, hence, it must have the 
Desire of Power. 

(5) The mind must live with other minds to secure its 
own development and to promote the well-being of others, 
hence, it must have the Desire of Esteem. 

These Desires of Life, Property, Knowledge, Power, and 
Esteem are specific desires for objects which we seek by 
specific acts of choice. 

3. General Desires. The object of each specific desire is 
known as a good. (1) The desire of a good is common to 
all these specific desires, hence, there is the General Desire 
of Good. 

(2) When we choose any one of the objects of the speci- 
fic desires, we need to be able to carry out that choice in 
action, hence, there is the General Desire of Liberty. 

(3) The social relation is an element in the action of all 
our powers, hence, we have the General Desire of Society. 
This desire of society is so strong that solitary confinement is 
the severest form of punishment. 

4. Control of Desires. The desires have for their object 
the well-being of the mind. They have no limit in them- 
selves. They increase in strength by indulgence. They 
may become selfish. They must be controlled. 



THE MIND FEELING. SENSIBILITY. 167 

§VII. The Natural Affections. 

1. Affections Defined. This mode of the sensibility 
arises from thinking of our relations to others. The child 
awakens in the parent an emotion of pleasure accompanied 
by a desire to do good to the child. A person strikes me 
without cause, he awakens a disagreeable emotion accom- 
panied by a desire to do him harm in self-defense. A man has 
committed murder, he awakens a painful emotion accom- 
panied by a desire to do him such harm that the crime shall 
not be repeated. The affections are feelings which impel us 
to do good, or to do harm to others. The affections differ 
from the desires in that their object is the well-being of 
others, they impel us to act for others instead of for self. 

2. The Natural Affections are Complex. When a person 
excites in us a pleasurable emotion, we desire for him the 
good we would desire for ourselves. When he awakens a 
disagreeable emotion we desire to be free from him. The 
affection includes an emotion, pleasurable or painful, and a 
desire to do good or to do harm to the person according to 
the emotion which he awakens. 

3. The Object of the Affections. The affections are a 
part of our nature and have for their object the well-being of 
others. This is evident when the affection prompts to do 
good to its object. It is equally for the good of others when 
the affection prompts to do another harm. In the case of 
the one who would injure us without cause, it is not for his 
good or for ours that he should perform this act. In the case 
of one who would murder, it is not for his good, or for the 
good of society, that he should perform this deed. On the 
contrary, it is for the good of all that these acts should be 
prevented. The affection is put into our nature for this pur- 
pose. It acts spontaneously, we are not responsible for its 
existence, but for its regulation. 

4. The Division of Natural Affections, The natural affec- 
tions which prompts us to do good to others are called Bene- 
ficent, which signifies well doing. The prominent beneficent 
affections are love of kindred, friends, benefactors, home, 



168 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

and country. Those affections which prompt us to do harm 
in self-defense are called Defensive. The prominent defen- 
sive affections are resentment, indignation, anger. Those 
which prompt us to do harm to one, for the good of the com- 
munity of which he is a part are called Punitive. 

The moral affections depend upon the will for their being 
and character, and will be considered in connection with the 
will. 

5. Feelings Conditioned Upon Desires and Affections. Hope 
is the feeling which comes with the prospect of attaining the 
object of desire or affection. Fear is the feeling which comes 
with the prospect of not attaining the object of desire or 
affection or from the expectation of evil. Joy is the feeling 
which comes when the object of desire or affection is at- 
tained. Sorrow is the feeling which comes when the object 
of desire or affection is not attained or is lost. Cheerfulness 
is the state of feeling which arises from being habitually 
hopeful. Despondency is the state of feeling which arises 
from being habitually fearful. 

§VIII. Cultivation of Sensibility. 

1. Conditions of Cultivation. (1) Since the desires and 
affections are inherent tendencies in our nature, their 
strength depends primarily upon their natural intensity. 

(2) The sensibility is conditioned upon the intellect, the 
more distinctly and strongly the mind comprehends the 
object of desire and affection, the stronger will be the feeling 
excited by that object. 

(3) We must cultivate the sensibihty indirectly by 
thinking of those objects which call forth the different forms 
of feeling in the right measure. We must bring about the 
conditions that will produce the right feeling. 

(4) We must remember that thinking, feeling, and 
wilHng are co-existent elements, and that the right feelings 
are secured only through right thinking and willing. 

(5) The aim of all emotional education is to secure the 
love of truth, of beauty, of goodness. Hence, the persistent 
purpose of the teacher should be so to unfold every subject 



THE MIND FEELING. SENSIBILITY. 169 

in the school curriculum, and so to associate it with the pupil's 
life as the most effectively to accomplish this aim. 

The teacher must never forget that " The teacher's feel- 
ing is the pupil's feeling." 

2. The Principle of Education derived from the study of 
the sensibility is, The pupil must be trained to the rational 
control of his appetites, desires, and affections. 

§IX. Summary of the Sensibility. 

The Sensibility, conditioned upon thinking, gives motives 
to choice and action. 

A motive is a feeling v^hich influences or determines an 
act of will. 

The Affective Reason manifest in Sensibility originates 
rational intuitions which regulate our thought and feeling. 

The Appetites are conditioned upon the needs of the 
body and move the will to secure the well-being of the body. 

The Instincts and Emotions conditioned upon the needs 
of the body and mind, secure the well-being of the person. 

The Desires conditioned upon the needs of the mind 
move the will to secure the well-being of the mind. 

The Affections conditioned upon our relations to others 
move the will to secure the well-being of others. 

The Appetites, Instincts, Desires, and Affections are the 
Natural Impulses to choice and action. They are in our 
nature what steam is to the locomotive the impelling power. 
Rightly controlled they secure the well-being of the man; 
uncontrolled they insure his destruction. 



CHAPTER XVIIL 
THE MIND CHOOSING. THE WILL. 

Man makes himself great or little by his own will. — Schiller. 

§1. Rational Choice and Action. 

1. Introductory Statement. We have considered the In- 
tellect and the Sensibility in the different modes of their 
activity to find the conditions and products of their action. 
We are rational beings endowed v^ith the rational will. We 
come now to the study of the mind choosing and acting as it 
thinks and feels. 

2. Conditions of Rational Willing. The mind must think; 
thinking gives rationality and knowledge. The mind must 
feel as it thinks; the Sensibility gives motives in the differ- 
ent objects of the appetites, desires, and affections which are 
known and felt as good. These elements of rationality and 
knowledge, and feeling, given by the intellect and sensibility 
are the indispensable condition of rational willing. 

3. Various Acts of Willing. (1) I know an object, if 
it awakens a feeling of pleasure, I may choose the object and 
seek to obtain it; if the object awakens a feeling of pain I 
choose to reject it and turn away. 

(2) I think of my work, choose to do it, and immedi- 
ately make ready for it. 

(3) I see platable food, I choose the food and eat. 

(4) I see beautiful flowers by the wayside, I desire 
them, and proceed to gather them. 

(5) My friend says. Come on! and instantly I choose, 
and rush into the scrimmage with him. 

(6) I have a composition to write; thoughts on the sub- 
ject come in the mental current, I find it difficult to select 



THE MIND CHOOSING. THE WILL. 171 

the right thoughts, I make the effort again and again, but 
without success. Here is indecision, failure to choose and 
act definitely. We note that an act of will is performed 
under varying conditions of thought and feeling. It may be 
performed in the habitual easy manner; it may be from a 
quick impulse; it may be by instant decision; it may be de- 
Jayed by indecision; or it may be by deliberate choice and 
action. 

4. Will Defined. We will analyze a deliberate act of 
will to find its essential elements. 

I observe a fine book, I know the object, here is knowl- 
edge. 

I regard the book as good, I desire it, here is feeling of 
desire. 

I need the book, I ought to have it, here is feeling of 
obligation. 

I can decide to buy or not to buy, here is freedom to 
choose. 

I decide to buy the book, here is choice. 

I buy the book, here is execution of the choice. 

Desire and obligation both influence to buy. This act of 
will is easy to perform. It might have been as follows: I 
do not need the book, I ought not to buy it. Desire moves 
to choose to buy. Obligation moves to choose not to buy. I 
decide to buy as before. I might have decided not to buy, as 
I am free to choose. 

Definition. The will is the mind choosing and executing 
the choice, knowing itself to be capable thus to act. 

5. Necessary to an Act of Choice. It is necessary to an 
act of choice, that there should be something to choose, as 
the buying or not buying the book; some reason for choosing, 
as the motives— desire and obligation — which were excited 
by the object known as good; and choice itself, as the deci- 
sion to buy. 

6. Two Elements in Will. There are two elements in 
the will, the power of choice, and the power of volition. 
These two elements need to be clearly distinguished to avoid 
confusion of thought. 



172 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

(1) The poiver of choice implies the comprehenson of 
the object as good, which means the joint action of the intel- 
lect and the sensibility. There can be no rational choice 
without this comprehension. 

(2) The power of choice is fundamental because there 
can be no volition without previous choice. 

(3) It is the voluntary element of the will, because in 
the choice we are free. There cannot be choice unless we 
are free. ' 'The freedom of the will is in choice and in that 
only." 

(4) The moral element is in the choice, because choice, 
either in accordance with the feeling of obligation, or in op- 
position to it, is a moral act. The power of choice is the 
fundamental, voluntary, moral element of the will. 

(5) The moral choice determines the moral quality of 
the character as soon as the choice is made, and the charac- 
ter is known at once to Him who reads the heart. 

6. The Power of Volition Implies the Exertion of Force. 
The strength of the will is shown in the force with which the 
mind holds to the choice until it is executed. We will a state 
of mind when we choose, we will an act when we execute 
the choice. The act depends upon the choice and follows it. 
The act may follow at once, or in a shorter or longer time, or 
not at all. We may be prevented from executing the choice 
by sickness, or by accident, or by the opposition of others. 
The execution of the choice reveals the character of the man 
to his fellowmen. 

7. The Position of the Will. To see this clearly we need 
to review the succession of added forces and powers active in 
us from our lowest nature upward, each one higher than the 
preceding and bringing us upon a plane of higher activity. 

First, We have our physical nature, in which we have 
the physical forces of gravitation, cohesion, and chemical 
affinity; and the vital forces of nutritive life and animal life; 
each acting of necessity and under law. 

Second, We have our intellectual nature, in which the 
mind rises through the different stages of thought in sense 



THE MIND CHOOSING. THE WILL. 173 

perception, the inner sense, memory, imagination, and re- 
flection. 

Third, We have our emotional nature in which we have 
the different modes of the sensibihty, the appetites, instincts, 
emotions, desires, and affections furnishing motives to 
action. 

Fourth, We have in connection with the will, our moral 
nature, the sense of obligation to choose the higher good and 
the right way of action, and the feeling of approbation, or 
guilt, after the moral action. 

Fifth, And then comes the Will, which is conditioned 
upon these natures and is above them, in which we have 
freedom of choice, and causation, or the origination of both 
choice and motion. The will makes man a free moral cause. 

8. Transition to Higher Activity. We see that from the 
beginning with each added force or power, there is a transi- 
tion to higher activity; nutritive life is higher than the phy- 
sical forces; animal life is higher than nutritive life; rational 
life is higher than animal life; and each form of rational life 
is higher than the preceding. But in adding the will there 
is made the greatest transition in the whole series of addi- 
tions. By this transition we have risen to the highest level 
human of activity. The will is the culmination of the man. 
Man is intellect, sensibility, and will. He is a person. 
Thought is mighty, feeling is powerful, but will is supreme, 
controlling both thought and feeling. It sets the purpose 
and executes it and makes or breaks the man' 

§11. Rational Intuitions which Regulate The 
Will. 

1. Intuitive Ideas. With the action of intellect, sensi- 
bility, and will there spring spontaneously in the mind cer- 
tain necessary and universal ideas or feelings which regulate 
the action of the will. 

2. Personality. Every man is consciously a person, not 
a thing. With this consciousness there must come the idea 
of Personality. 

3. Causation. We consciously exert force and produce 



174 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

effects; from this consciousness must come in the mind the 
idea of force and of Causation. 

4. Freedom. With the conscions exertion of the power 
of choice there must come in the mind the idea of Freedom. 
There can be no person, no choice, without freedom. 

5. Right and Obligation. If one has acquired by his own 
effort any good, as property, and another would take it from 
him, the idea of a Right must spring at once in the mind. 
Every man has a Right to his own good, and every other 
man is under Obhgation to respect this Right. 

6. Right Over Others. One jnay have a Right over 
others in connection with their good. For example, the good 
of the child depends upon the power, care, and guidance of 
the parent. This relation gives the parent the right to con- 
trol the child, or Authority. The parent, because he is the 
parent, is under obligation, first, to exercise his authority; 
second, to exercise it for the good of the child. The child is 
under the obligation of Obedience to his parent. The right 
is founded on good, and Obligation is its correlative. 

7. Obligation to Choose. The primary motive to choice 
is the feeling awakened by some good; choice implies some 
good to be chosen with an alternative. One good may be 
presented, as food, the alternative then is that we may 
choose to accept it or to reject it. The choice is usually be- 
tween a higher good and a lower good. We may choose the 
one or the orther, but we must choose. We are as much 
under the necessity of choosing as we are under the neces- 
sity of thinking, but we are free as to what we will choose. 

Wherein is the obigation to choose? Suppose a choice 
must be made between two goods, as integrity and property, 
— between paying a note and preserving integrity, and evad- 
ing the payment and holding the property. We know that 
integrity is the higher good. ' ' When we know one good to 
be higher in kind and more valuable than the other, we must 
feel obligation to choose the higher good. We are not obliged 
to choose the higher good, but we must feel that we ought to 
choose it." This feeling of obligation is the manifestation of 



THE MIND CHOOSING. THE WILL. 175 

our moral nature. The obligation to choose arises from the 
knoivledge of the higher good. 

8. Obligation to Act. When we know the higher good, 
we have simply to choose it. In carrying out this choice, 
means are to be used, we must act in one way or another. 
This brings us to a choice of means. For example, I have 
chosen teaching as my vocation, and two schools are offered 
to me, either of which I am competent to teach, but one 
offers a larger compensation than the other. I need the 
larger compensation. It is a good to be secured. It will be 
right for me to secure it, and I feel that I ought to take that 
school. "Of two courses of action, equally compatible with 
the rights of others, one, it may be, more effectively secures 
the good sought than the other. Such a course will be right 
and there will immediately arise a sense of obligation, to pur- 
sue it. ' ' The obligation to act in a certain way arises from 
the knowledge of the rightness of the act, that is, from its 
tendency to secure the good sought. 

9. Condition of Obligation. The sense of obligation must 
come with the knowledge of the higher good or of the right- 
ness of the act. It comes necessarily before choice. Choice 
either in accordance with or in opposition to the sense of 
obligation is a free moral act; it makes one a moral being. 

10. Merit and Demerit. The idea of Merit, or praise- 
worthiness must come immediately with the consciousness of 
performing an act in accord with the sense of obligation. 
The idea of Demerit, or blameworthiness must come immedi- 
ately with the performance of an act in opposition to the 
sense of obligation. These ideas come after the act, but are 
implied in the obligation. 

11. Responsibility and Punishment. To one who has au- 
thority over us, founded upon a right, we must feel that we 
are Responsible. With the violation of authority, the idea of 
Punishment must come in the mind. The fear of punishment 
is in our constitution; we cannot eliminate it. Punishment 
is in two forms. First, there is the feeling of guilt which is 
inseparable from all wrong doing. This is the natural Pen- 
alty for the violation of authority. Second, Punishment is 



176 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

the infliction of pain upon the body or mind of the offender 
by the one in authority over him. 

Necessary Ideas. Occasions of Them. 

Personality. Conscious of being a person. 

Causation. Conscious exertion of force. ^ 

Freedom. Conscious free choice. 

Right. Conscious possession of a good. 

Obligation. Conscious moral choice. 

Merit. Conscious right action. 

Demerit. Conscious wrong action. 

Responsibility. Conscious of being a subject. 

Punishment. Conscious. violation of authority. 

These ideas must come in every mind. They regulate 
our will. They are the condition of government both human 
and divine. They are the product of the Moral or Practical 
Reason, that is of Reason manifest in choice and action. 

12. There are Three Classes of Rational Intuitions which 
Regulate Our Mental Activity. The first are those of pure 
Intellect, being, space, time, personal identity, number, dif- 
ference, resemblance, which regulate our knowing; the second 
are those of Intellect and Sensibihty, a good, beauty, the 
ludicrous, which regulate our feeling. The third are those of 
Intellect and Sensibility and Will, given above which regu- 
late our willing. These three different classes of regulative 
ideas, open three lines of study, the study of pure thought, 
or truth; the study of the sensibilities or beauty; and the 
study of morals, or goodness. These departments of study 
constitute an ascending series, growing broader and more 
difficult as we go up. They indicate clearly the scope of the 
teacher's work in the education of his pupils. 

§ III. Conscience. 

1. Conscience Defined. We consider Conscience in con- 
nection with the will as it acts when we choose. We analyze 
an illustration of its action to find its definition. 

Shall I steal fruit? 

Inclination says, take the fruit. 

The Sense of Obligation says, you ought not to take the 
fruit. 

I know the moral quality of the choice before I make it. 



THE MIND CHOOSING. THE WILL. 177 

I choose not to steal, and do not take the fruit. 

I feel approbation after this decision. 

Or, I choose to steal and take the fruit. 

I feel guilt after this act. 

Definition. Conscience is the mind judging the moral 
quality of its choice, feeling obligation before choosing, and 
feeling approbation or guilt after the act. 

Conscience is knowing with. We know our choice and 
we know its quality. Conscience judges choices and motives. 

2. The Conscience has Two Elements. First, the 
judging which is the higher good and which is the right way 
of acting; second, the feeling of obligation before the choice, 
and of approbation or guilt after the act. The conscience is 
falHble in judging which is the higher good; it is infallible in 
affirming that we should choose in accordance with our sense 
of obligation. Men differ much in judging which is the 
higher good. They all agree that we should follow the affir- 
mation of obligation. No human judgment is infallible, 
hence conscience must be enlightened by the divine standards 
of choice and action. 

3. An Enlightened Conscience Should Alw^ays be Fol- 
lowed. It is the voice of God speaking within us bidding us 
do what we feel we ought to do. We do right in following 
conscience, but if, because conscience is not enlightened, we 
err in judging of the higher good and the right way, we shall 
do wrong as we follow conscience, however sincere we have 
been in our judging. Sincerely thinking an act to be right 
does not make it right. A man took a dose of laudanum by 
mistake. He was perfectly sincere in thinking it was the 
medicine which his physician had prescribed, but his mistake 
was fatal. Judging implies that we take the utmost pains to 
know which is the higher good, and which is the right way 
of acting. The power of conscience depends upon unceasing 
effort to know what we ought to choose and upon always 
following its dictates. 



178 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

§IV. Cultivation of the Will. 

1. The Will is Cultivated: (1) By cultivating the in- 
tellect. Thoughtfulness is the primary condition of right 
choice and action. " As a man thinketh in his heart so is he, " 
in his feeling and choice. 

(2) By listening to the voice of conscience in regulating 
the natural impulses. The more we feel the responsibilty of 
right choice the more likely we are to make it. 

(3) By resolving always to do what ought to be done. 
I am a rational being; I ought to choose and act rationally; I 
can do this; I tvill do so. 

(4) Dr. T. T. Miinger says, " It is not only quite pos- 
sible, but an easy and natural thing, for a young person 
fronting life to say, I will make the most of myself; I will 
recognize my whole nature; I will neglect no duty that be- 
longs to all men; I will carry with an even and a just hand 
those relations that make up a full manhood." 

(5) Man's six-fold life, his nutritive, animal, intellec- 
tual, emotional, moral, and spiritual life is a ladder extending 
from earth to heaven, as Jacob saw at Bethel. And as the 
individual man rises upon the successive rounds of this 
ladder, he gets a broader, clearer vision of truth, a fuller 
appreciation of beauty, a higher enjoyment, a stronger grasp 
upon goodness, and his life culminates in a "Hope which is 
an anchor to the soul, a Joy that is unspeakable, and a Peace 
that is Hke a river." 

2. The principle of education derived from the study of 
the will is The pupil must he trained to rational choice and 
action in all his conduct. 

§V. Formation of Character. 

1. The Present Inquiry. We have found how man is 
constituted and how his mind is furnished. We come now to 
consider his conduct, to ask what character a person consti- 
tuted as man is ought to form and build up. 

2. Man is a Free Moral Cause. "Herein, as respects 
freedom and power, he is in the image of God. He is a being 



THE MIND CHOOSING. THE WILL. 179 

capable of character, of being loved, respected, venerated, 
rew^arded; capable also of being despised, contemned, ab- 
horred, punished. You may train an animal, but in no pro- 
per sense can he be said to have guilt, and therefore he can- 
not be punished." Man has freedom of choice and the pov\^er 
to originate choice and motion, he is a Spirit. 

3. We Learn from the Study of the Will. (1) That the 
culmination of the man is in "the completely fashioned 
will;" 

(2) That the moral element of the will is in the choice; 

(3) That the execution of the choice depends largely 
upon the amount of will force. 

(4) That the condition for the activity of the will is the 
clear comprehension of the higher and lower goods from 
which we are to choose, given by the intellect; the impelling 
principles, the appetites, desires, and affections, given by 
Sensibility as motives; and the governing principle, the sense 
of obligation, given by our moral nature; 

(5) That the products of the will are choices, volitions, 
and character; 

(6) That character is what a person is as the result of 
his own free choice and action. 

4. Principles of Action and Objects of Choice. In the 
columns below are set forth (1) The moral nature; (2) in 
kind, every principle of action active in our constitution, 
each legitimate and desirable in its place; (3) the different 
objects of choice which address the principles of action; (4) 
and the character resulting from the principle of action which 
rules the man; that we may learn how a choice is made and 
how character is formed, (We read the columns from below 
upward. ) 



180 



THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 



LIGATION. 


Moral Love. 

Benevolence, as 
Moral Affections, 


Benevolence. 
Justice, 
Truth, 
Righteousness, 




Benevolent. 
Just, 
True, 
Righteous, 


For Country. 
For Family, as 
Natural Affections, 


Country, 
Family. ■ 




Patriotic 
Amiable, 


o 

o 


Esteem, 
Power, 
Knowledge, 
Property, 
Desires, of 


Esteem. 
Power, 
Kjilowledge, 
Pro^>er#ty, 




Ambitious. 
Covetous. 


Ed 
1. 


Appetites, for 

2. 3. 


Sex. 
Sleep, 
Air, 
Drink, 
Food, 




Sensual. 
4. 


Moral Nature. 

Governing 

Principle 


Irai)elling princi- 
ples of action lower 
and higher in the 


Objects which ad- 
dress the principles 
of action. 


Character formed by 
the principle ruling 
the man. 



constitution of man 

5. " The Sense of Obligation acts at every point where a 
choice is to be made between a higher and lower principle of 
action, or between a higher and lower good. When such a 
choice is to be made, the moral nature always affirms obliga- 
tion to choose the higher." This affirmination is a manifes- 
tation of the moral nature, which stands by itself in our con- 
stitution for the control of the appetites, desires, and affec- 
tions, which have not a limit in themselves. 

6. How a Choice is Made. "The proper motives to 
choice are the objects which address the different principles 
of action, or those principles themselves prompting us to act 
in view of the object. The objects present themselves a 
good; the principles of action promise a good if we will per- 
mit them to act, and, in view of the object and of the affir- 
mation of obligation, ive are to choose which object we will 
have, what principle of action we will adopt, what end we 
will pursue." The sense of obligation is awakened only when 
a good is presented to the Sensibility as a motive. Obliga- 
tion is affirmed whenever there is a conflict of motives as 
higher and lower. The man has the power to set aside the 
affirmation of obligation, he can be wise or foolish. 

7. The Relation of the Principles of Action. The princi- 
ples of action and the objects which address them hold the 
relation of lower and higher. The appetites and their objects 
are lower than the desires and their objects; and the latter 



THE MIND CHOOSING. THE WILL. 181 

are lower than the affections and their objects. And the 
ends we seeks are lower and higher. 

8. The Generic Choice. Our moral nature acquires that 
some end should be chosen and made supreme. ''A supreme 
end is that which we seek as a good in itself, which is placed 
by us above all others." 

A generic choice is the choice of some end as supreme 
which shall govern all specific acts of choice. 

9. How Character is Formed. A person in view of the 
different principles of action or ends in his constitution (as 
shown in the second column above) may seem to act first 
from one principle then from another without making any 
one supreme. Then he has chosen to drift, to enjoy the 
gratification of self. "Since in the gradation of principles 
of action, or ends, from the lowest to the highest, obliga- 
tion says at every step until we reach the highest choose the 
higher, the person may take a stand at any point and the end 
chosen at that point becomes the supreme end." And the 
generic choice so made determines the quality of the charac- 
ter. Doubtless every person makes a generic choose. He 
may not have stated it to himself, and he may not reveal it 
to others until he is tested. We see that character is formed 
by choosing any one of the principles of action as supreme, 
and subordinating all other action to this prinbiple. 

10. The Kind of Character Formed by the different prin- 
ciples of action ruling the person is shown in the fourth 
column above. 

If the appetites rule the man, the character will be 
sensual. 

If money rules the man, the character will be covetous. 

If power rules the man, the character will be ambitious. 

If affection for family rules, the character will be ami- 
able. 

If affection for country rules, the character will be 
patriotic. 

"If Benevolence, or Moral Love, love hke that of God, 
which seeks the good of its object, rules, the character will 
be righteous, true, just, benevolent." 



182 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

11. If the Generic Choice be Made in Conformity with the 
Sense of Obligation, we must make the highest end, — God 
and his service, — and the highest principle of action, moral 
love supreme. ' ' 

Moral Affections. This choice will bring into being and 
action the Moral Affections of Complacent Love for right 
doing, and Moral Indignation for wrong doing. 

Moral Emotions. From these moral affections, will 
spring the moral emotions of Hope, Joy, and Peace as fra- 
grance springs from the flower. 

Religions Emotions. There will follow the religious 
emotions of "Adoration, Thanksgiving, and Praise, called 
forth in view of the greatness, the goodness, and the glory 
of God;" which move the mind to worship in "the ascrip- 
tion of Blessing, Honor, Glory, Power, to God." Thus man 
finds the satisfaction of his whole being in communion with 
the Father of his spirit. 

12. If the Generic Choice is in Opposition to the Sense of 
Obligation, then we make some lower principle of action 
supreme and its object the supreme end. As the result of 
this choice there must be continual strife within the man 
from the effort to subordinate higher principles of action to 
the lower principle which has been made supreme; because 
violence has been done to the moral nature. 

This choice will bring into being and action the moral 
affections "Envy, Hatred, Wrath, Revenge; and the Moral 
Emotions of Hope, Joy, Pride, Vanity; and the Worship will 
become Idolatry. ' ' 

13. Relation of the Will to Obligation. "Every principle 
of action has connected with it its own sensibility and differs 
in quality from every other. Especially is this true of the 
moral nature as we require the faculties to act in harmony 
with that, or in opposition to it. The deepest harmony of 
our nature is that of the Will with the Moral nature; and the 
most fearful discord is their opposition. From these we have 
a quality of enjoyment and of suffering wholly different from 
any other. " — Hopkitis. 

14. What the Study of the Principles of Action Shows. 



THE MIND CHOOSING. THE WILL. 183 

It shows First, that the highest good of the man is secured 
by making the highest end supreme, and holding fast to this 
end under all conditions. This choice is in accord with our 
nature, and is what the sense of obligation requires of us. 

Second, Since every principle of action is good in its 
place and from the action of every one there comes a good; 
we see that the whole good of the man will be secured when 
the forces of his whole nature are acting in harmony. 

Third, We see the law of limitation by which the whole 
good of the man is attained. We have found that each lower 
principle of action is a condition for the principles above it. 

The appetites are a condition for the desires, and the 
desires are a condition for the affections; "And it is to be 
noticed that the relative force of the lower is always pre- 
cisely that which is requisite for the best operation of that 
which is higher." 

15. The Law of Limitation in Regard to Conduct. "As 
the faculties and motive principles are higher or lower, so 
are the duties, the pleasures, the satisfactions connected 
with them." 

To what extent shall we follow any particular principle, 
as the desire of property? Just so far as will best promote 
the act of the principles above it. Eat so far as will best 
promote the action of the principles above appetite. 

The law of limitation is, "We may go just as far under 
any principle of action as will best promote the action of the 
principles above it." — Hopkins. 



184 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

§VL Summary of the Will. 

The Moral or Practical Reason manifest in willing gives 
rational intuitions which regulate the action of the will. 

The action of the Will conditioned upon thinking and 
feeling, produces character. 

The power of choice, conditioned upon something to 
choose, produces choices. 

The power of volition conditioned upon previous choice, 
produces action. 

Conscience, conditioned upon a moral choice, secures the 
best good of the man. 

The generic choice, which makes conscience supreme, 
brings into being and action the Moral Affections or Compla- 
cent Love and Moral Indignation. 

The Moral Affections give rise to the Moral Emotions of 
Hope, Joy, and Peace. 

The Moral Affections in view of the attributes of God 
give rise to the Religious Emotions of Adoration, Thanksgiv- 
ing, Praise, and Worship. 



CHAPTER XIX. 
RECAPITULATION. 

§1. General View of the Mind's Activity. 

1. The activity of the Intellect gives knowledge, in- 
tellectual power, and skill. 

Reason manifest in knowing gives necessary idea which 
regulate intellectual activity. 

Presentation, conditioned upon the presence of the object 
and attention, gives ideas of individual objects. 

Presentation in Sense Perception, conditioned upon the 
presence of the external object and attention, gives know- 
ledge of material phenomena. 

Presentation in the Inner Sense, conditioned upon con- 
sciousness of the mental state and attention, gives knowledge 
of mental phenomena. 

Language, conditioned upon acquiring ideas, gives the 
association of ideas with their signs. 

Representation, conditioned upon previous mental activ- 
ity, gives knowledge of the past. 

Representation in Memory, conditioned upon the recur- 
rence of the sign or an associated idea gives past mental 
states. 

Representation in Imagination, condition upon the pos- 
session of distinct ideas of sensible objects, gives ideal 
objects. 

Elaboration, conditioned upon distinct ideas of individual 
objects, gives knowledge of relations and causes. 

Elaboration in Generalization, conditioned upon distinct 
ideas of individual objects, gives concepts, general terms, 
and classes. 



186 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

Elaboration in Judgment and Reasoning, conditioned 
upon the possession of concepts, gives general truths. 

Elaboration in Systemization, conditioned upon the pro- 
ducts of judgment and reasoning, gives sciences and system. 

2. The activity of Sensibility, conditioned upon think- 
ing, gives motives. 

Affective Reason, manifest in feeling, gives necessary 
ideas and emotions which regulate thought and feeling. 

Appetites, conditioned upon the needs of the body, secure 
the well-being of the body. 

Instincts and Emotions, conditioned upon the needs of 
body and mind, secure the welfare of the person. 

Desires, conditioned upon the needs of the mind, secure 
the well-being of the mind. 

Natural Affections, conditioned upon knowledge of our 
relations to others, secure the well-being of others. 

3. The activity of the Will conditioned upon thinking 
and feeling, gives character. 

The Moral or Practical Reason, manifest in willing, gives 
necessary ideas or feelings which regulate the action of the 
will. 

The power of choice, conditioned upon something to 
choose, produces choices. 

The power of volition, conditioned upon previous choice, 
produces action. 

Conscience, conditioned upon a moral choice, secure the 
best good of the man. 

The generic choice of the highest principle of action 
brings into being and action the Moral Affections of Compla- 
cent Love and Moral Idignation. 

The Moral Affections give rise to the Moral Emotions of 
Hope, Joy, and Peace. 

The Moral Affections in view of the attributes of God 
give rise to the Religious Emotions of Adoration, Thanksgiv- 
ing, Praise, and Worship. 



recapitulation. 187 

§11. Summary of the Principle of Education. 

From the Whole Man. 

1. Self-Control. We must be active either for our ele- 
vation or our degradrtion; hence, the necessity for self-con- 
trol, with which comes elevation, without which comes 
degradation. 

Z. Development. We can be developed only by the vigor- 
ous exertion of our powers, under the laws of our being. 

3. Imitation. As social beings desiring the esteem of 
our fellows we must be imitators of their example. 

4. Habit. Every repetition of any form of activity in- 
creases the tendency to act in that way; hence, we must 
form habits, either good or bad, early in life. 

5. The Function of the Educator. The work of the edu- 
cator is to stimulate, direct, and sustain the activity by which 
the learner is educated. 

From the Physical Nature. 

6. Care of the Body. The pupil must be educated to 
obey the conditions of health, and to such control of his appe- 
tites as will secure the highest well-being of the body. 

7. Command of the Body. The pupil must be educated 
to such command of his body as will make it the most effi- 
cient instrument for the expression of his mind. 

From Presentation. 

8. Presence of the Object. The object of thought from 
which primary ideas are to acquired must be in the presence 
of the mind. 

9. Securing Attention. Attention to the object present 
is to be secured by the interest and skill of the teacher in 
presenting the object of thought. 

10. Definite Acquisition and Expression. Definite ideas 
and thoughts must be acquired and definitely expressed in 
good English, orally and in writing. 

11. Natural Order. The natural order, proceeding from 
the whole object to its parts and their relations, must be fol- 
lowed. 



188 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

12. Repetition. Ideas and their expression become the 
permanent possession of the mind only by much repetition. 

13. Adaptation. The teaching must be adapted to the un- 
folding of the mind. 

From Representation. 

14. Habit of Association. The pupil must be trained to 
habits of attention, association, and repetition, in the acquisi- 
tion and expression of knowledge. 

15. Forming High Ideals. The pupil must be trained to 
the vigorous use of the imagination in forming ideals which 
elevate the mind. 

From Elaboration. 

16. Definite Thought and Expression. The pupil must be 
trained to logical thinking and effective expression. 

From the Sensibility. 

17. Rational Feeling. The pupil must be trained to the 
rational control of his desires and affections. 

From the Will. 

18. Rational Willing. The pupil must be trained to ra- 
tional choice and action in all his conduct. 



CHAPTER XX. 
THE EDUCATIONAL STUDY OF SUBJECTS. 

Any particular study, art, or science rises and improves in propor- 
tion to the application we bestow upon it. — Addison. 

§1. What is the Educational Study of a Subject? 

1. The Study for Teaching. In the elementary and in 
the secondary school, the student is a learner, seeking the 
knowledge of the object and the mental discipline which 
comes from right exertion in learning. The teacher must 
think the object with the learner, he must also think the pro- 
cess by which the learner knows. 

For example, the teacher is leading the pupil to acquire 
the knowledge of a bird. The learner, directed by the 
teacher, is occupied in studying the bird as a whole, in find- 
ing the parts, qualities, movements, habits of the bird. In 
doing this, the pupil perceives, remembers, imagines, com- 
pares, generalizes, reasons, but he does not notice these 
modes of activity through which his mind moves. 

The teacher thinks the facts with the learner; he also 
must observe the movement of the learner's mind, and think 
how he shall incite him to the most effective thinking. 
Studying a subject as a teacher is much more than studying 
the same subject as a learner. The study of the subject for 
teaching is educational study. 

§ II. Each Study Must be Studied Educationally. 

1. Why Study Each Subject. It is a law of mental 
activity that the mind proceeds from the concrete to the ab- 
stract. We must proceed from the knowledge of many red 
objects to the abstract idea of redness. The same law con- 



190 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

trols the learning of the teaching process. The student 
teacher must be led through the learning and teaching pro- 
cess in each subject; he must buckle himself to the subject, 
and study it definitely for teaching; then teach and be criti- 
cised on his work until he has firmly grasped the process. 

2. No Substitute for This Study. No one can produce 
the best quality of teaching in any grade without this educa- 
tional study of the subjects he is to use as instruments in the 
unfolding of the life of the pupil. The end cannot be accom- 
plished by reading about it, by hearing lectures upon it, or 
by observing others do it. The separation of the student 
teacher's work into "the academic study of subjects and the 
study of methods" is not sound educational practice. 

3. The Advantages. When the student teacher has gone 
through the study of the concrete process of teaching in the 
several subjects, he can compare his experiences in these 
several studies, and grasp the aim, the steps and the means 
of the teaching process, and the general method. This is 
the law which governs all learning. We can acquire skill in 
any mechanical or mental process only by g»)ing through the 
intelligent performance of the process. 

§111. Three Views of Each Subject. 

1. Scientific View. The teacher should consider each 
subject scientifically, that he may know its principles in their 
logical arrangement, and place the subject in its true relation 
to other subjects. The principles of the subject in their logi- 
cal arrangement are the things essential to be taught, if the 
pupil is to be able to use his knowledge in solving the pro- 
blems of life. Without this scientific study of the subject, 
the teacher's work will be fragmentary, and will lack order, 
method, vitality. 

2. Philosophical View. The teacher should consider 
each subject philosophically, to know why it has its place in 
the course of studies. Take the subject reading as an exam- 
ple of the need of this view. What is it to be able to read an 
author? What is this power as a factor in life? Why should 
reading be taught? What is its place in the course of study? 



THE EDUCATIONAL STUDY OF SUBJECTS. 191 

These questions must be answered by the teacher before he 
can effectively teach reading. Without this philosophical 
study of the subject, the teacher will be formal, and fall into 
routine. 

3. Pedagogical View. The teacher should study each 
subject pedagogically, to know its value to the pupil, to 
know which parts are to be used and emphasied in teaching, 
and the best method of using them. Without this pedagogi- 
cal study of the subject, the teacher will fail to adapt his 
teaching to the needs of the pupil. The teacher needs to 
consider each subject from this three-fold point of view. 
The study of one subject in this way does not enable him to 
use another subject in teaching without studying it in the 
same way. 

§IV. The Relation of School Studies. 

1. Relation of Dependence. Elementary knowledge is 
the condition for scientific knowledge. The physical forces 
are the condition for the vital forces, and these are the con- 
dition for the rational powers. The habits formed in child- 
hood are the condition for character in manhood. The teach- 
ing in the lower grades is the condition for the teaching in 
the higher grades. To be thoroughly equipped for teaching 
in the elementary schools, the teacher must take the educa- 
tional study of the secondary school subjects as well as that 
of the elementary school subjects. The teacher in any grade 
cannot do his own work properly unless he knows the rela- 
tion it holds to what precedes and follows. He must know 
more than he teaches. Confining one's effort to any one 
grade is narrowing in its effect upon teacher and pupil. 

2. Relation of Part to Whole. The teacher cannot teach 
arithmetic and elementary algebra and geometry in their 
proper relation to the study of higher mathematics without 
the educational study of algebra and geometry; he cannot 
teach geography intelligently without this study of the sev- 
eral sciences upon which geography depends; he cannot 
teach nature study acceptably without this study of the 
natural sciences; he cannot effectively use the myths and 



192 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

stories from ancient history called for in the lower grades, or 
make United States history a living study, without this study 
of general history ; he cannot use the gems of literature and 
art with the best effect without something of this study of 
literature and art; and to these must be added the study of 
drawing, vocal music, manual training, and physical culture. 
All philosophy and experience show that theory and practice 
must be conjoined in the concrete teaching process. 

It is the Function of the Normal School to lead the stu- 
dent teacher carefully through the educational study of the 
subjects of the public school curriculum. 



The Teacher in Modern Life. 



PART III. 
IN SKILLFUL PRACTICE OF HIS ART. 



CHAPTER XXI. 
THE ART OF TEACHING. 

To rear the tender thought, to breathe the enHvening spirit, to fix 
the generous purpose in the glowing breast. — Thomson. 

§1. The Nature of the Art. 

1. Teaching Defined. Teaching is the art of inciting 
young human beings to the conscious exertion and control of 
all their powers, to the full measure of their ability, under 
the laws of their being. 

2. The Generic Aim of Teaching is the perfection of the 
pupil's character by causing him to make the rational use of 
all his powers and possessions. 

3. The Soul of Teaching is the spirit of the teacher in- 
spiring the pupil to his highest self-activity. 

4. The Means to Teaching is the use of the objects and 
subjects adapted to incite the pupil to rational activity, 
arranged in the order of mental development in its diiferent 
stages, and in the order of their logical dependence. This 
means a well digested course of studies skilfully used. 

5. The One Method. Since every human being is one 
with every other human being in the natures with which he 
is endowed; in the conditions of their normal activity; and in 
the kind of their product; the method of teaching is one and 
universal. 

6. The One Method of Developing Each Power is to 
Follow the Conditions of Its Normal Activity. 

{1 ) Of developing perception. Since every person must 
acquire the knowledge of the external world through sense 
perception, the one method of teaching the pupil this knowl- 
edge and developing this power is to bring the material 



196 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

object distinctly into the presence of his mind and stimulate 
and direct his perceptive power. 

(2) Of developing introspection. Since every one must 
acquire the knoweledge of his own mental activities by intro- 
spection, the one method of teaching this knowledge and 
developing this power is to aid the pupil to bring the action 
of his mind distinctly into his own consciousness and stimu- 
late and direct his introspection. 

(3) 0/ developing memory. Since every person remem- 
bers by giving undivided attention to the ideas he would 
acquire; by associating these ideas with those he has pre- 
viously acquired; and by much repetition of this action, the 
one method of teaching to remember is to lead the pupil into 
the habit of attention, association, and repetition in acquir- 
ing ideas and their expression. 

(^) Of developing comprehension. Since every person 
must come to a clear knowledge of the comprehension of con- 
cepts by definition, the one method of teaching this know- 
ledge is to lead the pupil to observe the essential qualities of 
the individuals which represent the class, and to think these 
qualities together into the concept. 

(5) Of develojying the sense of beauty. Since every person 
must come to an appreciation of beauty through a distinct 
knowledge of the objects which awaken the idea and emotion 
of beauty, the one method of cultivating beauty is to lead 
the pupil to acquire the distinct knowledge of the objects 
which awaken the idea and and the emotion of beauty. 

{6) 0/ devolping the will. Since every man must choose 
and act under the influence of motives, the one method of 
controlling the will is to incite the pupil to the knowledge 
which awakens the feelings that will move him to rational 
choice and action. 

7. The One Method of Using the Object or Subject of 
Thought in Teaching is the Objective, Analytic Method. 

All teaching implies the distinct presentation of the 
object or subject of thought, hence the teaching must be 
objective. Every object and every subject of thought comes 
before the mind first as a whole and then the mind proceeds 



THE ART OF TEACHING. 197 

to its parts, hence teaching must be analytic, and when we 
have analyzed the object into its parts and qualities, or the 
subject into its divisions and subdivisions we must think 
them together again into the thought of the whole object or 
subject hence teaching must be synthetic. From the nature 
of the mind the one method of using the object or subject in 
teaching is the objective, analytic, and synthetic method. 

8. Individual Application of Method. Since every person 
differs from every other in his personality, every teacher will 
have his own individual way of applying the method of 
teaching. 

A careful distinction is to be made between the method 
and the devices which the individuality of different teachers 
may use in the application of the method. 

9. Introduction of a Subject. The first condition to be 
observed in introducing any subject in teaching is to show 
the pupil how it comes into life to help him to live. The dis- 
like of a subject which the pupil sometimes feels often comes 
from the fact that he does not see any benefit coming to him 
from its study. This feeling must be removed before the 
pupil can profit from the study. Hence the necessity of 
awakening the pupil's interest in the study at the outset. 

10. Four Questions. Four questions should be answered 
by the teacher in planning every teaching exercise: 

What is the need of the pupil? 

What steps must the pupil take to supply his need? 

What means are to be used to incite the pupil to take 
these steps? 

What is the educational value of this exercise? 

The answering exercise of these questions will give a 
definite aim to the act; the right application of the method; 
the use of the best means; and will make the act valuable to 
the pupil. All effective work of the school, of the class, of 
the individual, every teaching act, every lesson, every class 
exercise should have a definite aim. 

11. Four Parties to School Teaching. In the public school 
the pupils must be grouped in classes. Every pupil is to be 
taught as an individual, in the class, in the school. There 



198 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

are four parties directly concerned in the teaching, — the 
teacher, the pupil, the class, which is a social unit, and the 
school, which is a larger social unit. The class and the school 
exert a great influence upon the pupil. The teacher must 
have all these parties in mind and keep each in its proper 
relation to the others. 

§11. The Four Stages in Teaching. 

The first stage is: Preparation by the Teacher, before 
coming to his pupils. The spirit, personality, aptitude, 
knowledge, and skill of the teacher determine his value to 
the pupil. These are essential parts of his preparation. 
Broad general culture and definite special preparation are 
indispensable to good teaching. 

The second stage is: Introductory Teaching, when the 
work is assigned. The purpose of this teaching is to indicate 
clearly to the pupils what they are to study; the order and 
method of their study; and to excite their interest in the 
work. No more is to be done for the pupil than is necessary 
to secure the best use of time and energy. 

The third stage is: Study by the Pupils. After the 
introductory teaching, the pupils must study their lessons 
according to their ability. They can develop power and 
acquire knowledge only by study. 

The fourth stage is: The Examination of the Class, after 
study by the pupil. We do what is exacted of us. Thorough 
examination of the pupil is necessary to secure from him the 
proper study. 

§111. The Three Steps of the First Stage. 

First step. The Teacher Must be Constantly Extending 
His Knowledge. 

(1) Of human nature. Every day in the schoolroom 
calls for definite knowledge of the conditions of health in the 
human body, and how to use the body effectively as the in- 
strument of the mind; for accurate knowledge of the con- 
ditions and products of the different modes of the mind's 
activity, that the teacher may read intelligently the mental 



THE ART OF TEACHING. 199 

activity of his pupils and guide their action collectively; for 
specific knowledge of each pupil, that each one may be 
trained in the way he should go. 

(2) Of the subject used in teaching. The teacher must 
know the object or subject to be considered in teaching in all 
its relations, that each part may be presented in its true 
relation to the other parts, and that it may be used according 
to the need of the pupil. The teacher must have a ready 
command of this knowledge, that he may give his attention 
to the pupil, the class, and the school, and be one with them 
in their work. 

(3) Of the art of teaching. The teacher must keep up 
his study of the art of teaching and frequently recur to the 
principles of education that he may have them more clearly 
in mind; and daily observe the application of the principles 
in his teaching, that he may see wherein he succeeds and 
wherein he fails in their use, and be steadily gaining from 
his own experience, in his power to teach. 

Second step. The Selection of the Proper Objects of 
Thought for Teaching. 

(1) Selection is a necessity, because the objects of 
thought are so numerous, and the proper object is the pri- 
mary condition for exciting right activity in the learner. This 
selection implies a well digested and carefully graded course 
of studies to begin with. 

(2) The selection should include, (1) a sufficient number 
of pertinent illustrations to meet the need of every pupil; (2) 
the apparatus which is best suited to the teaching must be 
selected and put in complete order for effective use; (3) the 
experiments to be used in teaching are to be carefully selected 
and verified before they are performed in the class, that they 
may be made conclusive; (4) the words for the expression of 
the ideas taught are to be fitly chosen before coming to the 
class, that their meaning may be impressed upon the mind of 
the learner. (5) All this requires thought, the teacher can 
lead the pupil no farther than he has been himself. Proper 
selection requires wide knowledge, much care, and skill. 

Third step. The Arrangement of Ideas to be Taught. 



200 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

(1) The natural order in teaching an object, is to pro- 
ceed from the whole object to its parts in the order in which 
they exist, and to their relations; to the qualities; and the 
uses to which the qualities adapt the objects. 

(2) The logical order in teaching a subject. We begin 
by defining it, which presents the subject as a whole. We 
find its main divisions by analyzing the definition. We ana- 
lyze each main division into its subordinate divisions, and 
continue this process till we have found and arranged all the 
divisions of the subject in the order of their dependence. 
Then we combine the thoughts of these divisions so arranged 
into the thought of the whole subject. The mind proceeds 
from the whole subject to its parts and their relations, in the 
order of their dependence. This is the logical order. 

(3) Topical arrangement. A distinct subject of thought 
may be called a topic. Every lesson should be arranged 
topically. This arrangement is especially necessary in les- 
sons given to young pupils, which have to be learned by 
oral repetition with the teacher. The lesson so arranged is 
easily understood and remembered. Lessons in text-books 
for pupils able to study by themselves should be topically ar- 
ranged. If the text-book is not so arranged, the topical 
arrangement should be made in writing as a guide in teach- 
ing and study. 

{If) Rules for topical arrangement: 

Rule 1. Present elementary ideas first. 

Rule 2. Present the object or subject first as a whole, 
then the parts, and the relation of the parts. 

Rule 3. Arrange the topics for teaching an object in the 
natural order. 

Rule k. Arrange the topics for teaching a subject in the 
logical order. 

(5) Advantages' oj topical arrangement: 

First, in teaching. If the teacher thinks through the 
lesson with reference to teaching, and arranges it topically, 
he knows what is to be taught, the steps to be taken, and the 
means to be used in the teaching. 



THE ART OF TEACHING. 201 

Second, in the study. If the lesson is topically arranged 
the pupils know what to study, in what order, and how. 

Third, in the examination of the class. Both teacher 
and pupils know what is to be considered, and the order and 
method of the examination. All the minds in the class are 
turned to the same thing, thus securing the interest and 
attention, and the work proceeds promptly. 

Fourth, in the thought and the knowledge. The topical 
arrangement aids the pupil to comprehend and remember the 
lesson, accustoms him to think logically, and he acquires 
knowledge of objects in their relations. 

(6) The finding of the objective, analytic, topical method 
of teaching lets light and order into every hne of mental 
activity in the school, and sets the teacher to work to have 
all the subjects in the course of study arranged on the topical 
plan. This method makes the comprehension and extension 
of every subject in the course distinct and complete in the 
mind of the teacher, and of the pupil as he comes to its 
study. He knows what he is to work for, he knows how to 
go to work to accomplish his purpose. It is the key to self 
instruction. 

(7) This method is expensive in time and labor for the 
teacher. He must give much time to preparation for teach- 
ing, that he may be able to stand before his pupils and pre- 
sent the object or subject clearly, forcibly, persuasively; to 
train his pupils to vigorous self-activity; and to inspire them 
to the highest achievement. It requires the construction of 
laboratories with approved modern appliances for teaching; 
the gathering of collections of illustrative minerals, plants, 
and animals; the furnishing of each department with its 
own libray of works devoted to the subjects taught in the 
department; and ample school grounds for outdoor teaching 
and training. The method is expensive in equipment but 
fruitful in good results. It is the high-way for all round 
teaching and training in the development of young human 
lives. 



202 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

§IV. The Five Steps of the Second Stage. 

First step. Presenting the Object of Thought. The ob- 
ject of thought from which the primary ideas of our knowl- 
edge are acquired must be brought distinctly before the mind 
of the learner. We note the different classes of objects which 
are used in teaching, and their value. 

(1) The real object. The mind can acquire the distinct 
idea of a material object only through the impression which 
the object makes upon the sense-organ. Hence, the material 
object should always be presented when it is possible to 
furnish it. The mind can acquire a distinct idea of a mental 
object only when the object is distinctly in consciousness. 
The presence of the object is indispensable to getting distinct 
and complete ideas of the object. 

(2) The model. When the real material object cannot 
be presented, its form, color, and size, and the form, color, 
size, and relative position of its parts may be acquired from a 
model of the object; as for example, a manikin which may 
be taken apart. The model cannot show anything of the 
function of an organism. It is next to the real object in 
value in teaching. 

(3) The picture. The picture represents the appear- 
ance of an object upon a surface, plane or curved. It gives 
a more or less imperfect idea of the form, color, and position 
of the object and of the relative position of its parts, and may 
suggest the use or habits of the thing pictured. The picture 
is next in value to the model. To be effective in teaching, 
the picture should represent graphically the prominent ideas 
to be learned; the teacher should lead the pupil to imagine 
the object in its main features before the picture of it is pre- 
sented, that the pupil may look directly for the things the 
teacher would have him see, when the picture is shown. 

(^) The diagram. The diagram represents the view of 
the section of an object. It gives the sectional view of the 
relative position of the parts. The diagram is often used in 
teaching. 

(5) The experiment. An experiment is subjecting ob- 



THE ART OF TEACHING. 203 

jects to certain conditions and observing the result; its pur- 
pose is to test some principle, or discover something new. 
The experiment is necessary in presenting the effects of the 
action of forces for observation and inference, and for test- 
ing objects. 

(6) The drawing. The drawing shows imperfectly the 
form and size of an object and the relative position of its 
parts. It is used to show the plan and elevation of struc- 
tures. Buildings and machines are made from working 
drawings. The drawing is valuable because it can be so 
easily and promptly used in expressing ideas. Drawing is a 
mode of language which every one can understand. 

(7) Language. The power of language is in constant 
use. Language is an ever present object of thought, and 
should be constantly studied. The language of action is ac- 
quired by the study of the natural signs, — facial expressions, 
intonations of the voice, and muscular movements. The 
idea of the formation of a word is acquired only by forming 
the word; the idea of the construction of a sentence is gained 
only by constructing the sentence; the idea of the use of 
language comes only through using the language. Language 
is to be cultivated in connection with every study. Ideas 
are not definitely acquired until they are properly expressed 
in words. 

(8) Illustration and definition. An illustration is one 
or more individuals which evidence the essential qualities of 
the whole class. Definition is finding the sum of the essen- 
tial qualities of the class by observing these qualities in the 
illustration and thinking them together into the concept. 
Illustration and definition are indispensable in securing clear 
thought and expression. They bring concepts distinctly 
before the mind. 

(9) Elustration and division. The learner is led to ob- 
serve definitely the qualities in which individuals of the class 
differ, and to separate them according to these differences 
into smaller classes. Division gives distinct and complete 
knowledge of the extension of the class or the subject by 



204 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

showing all the parts in their relation to one another and to 
the whole. 

(10) The book. The book is a record of thoughts. Its 
value in itself is proportional to the amount of truth which 
the record represents. Its value to the reader is proportional 
to his ability to interpret the record. The ability of the 
reader to interpret the record is proportional to his knowl- 
edge of the things for which the words of the record stand. 
The book helps one to recall the ideas he has acquired; gives 
one new combinations of these ideas in the thoughts of 
others; stimulates and directs thinking; increases informa- 
tion; and brings one into the society of superior minds. The 
right use of books is of very great value. Objects are the 
primary source of ideas aside from the necessary and univer- 
sal ideas which come intuitively in the mind. The book is 
secondary in teaching and should not be allowed to take the 
first place. 

Second step. Direction of the Pupil's Activity. When 
the object of thought is brought before the learner, his 
thought and expression are to be directed by the teacher in 
such measure as will best facilitate the right exertion of his 
mind. This direction of the pupil's activity is given by pre- 
liminary questioning; by instructive questioning; by direct 
statement; and by due clearness and deliberation in the 
whole process. 

(1) By Tpreliminary questioning. 

1. To question a pupil is to ask for something in a way 
which impels him to seek for it until he finds it. 

2. The purpose of preliminary questioning is first to 
ascertain precisely what the pupil knows of the object of 
thought which is to be studied, and second, to secure his 
attention to what he needs to know. 

3. The pupil must answer from experience. One's past 
experiences in thought, feehng, and action interpret the new 
experiences that come to him. The pupil has been learning 
by direct experience, and this process continues through life. 
The new ideas to be acquired must be associated with the 
related ideas which the pupil has previously acquired, and 



THE ART OF TEACHING. 205 

the pupil must be made conscious of this connection of the 
new ideas with the old. The teacher must therefore ascer- 
tain what the pupil knows that he may intelligently connect 
this with what he would lead him to know. 

4. The preliminary questioning must be definite, aimed 
directly at its purpose; be conducted in such a spirit that the 
pupil will not feel that the teacher is trying to show up his 
ignorance; and in such a manner that the pupil's desire to 
know what is to be taught will be excited. 

The following concrete example of preliminary question- 
ing will show its two-fold object: Mr. Tillinghast, the first 
principal of the Bridgewater Normal School, was giving out 
text-books in arithmetic to the entering class at the opening 
of the term. A young woman in the class returned the book 
given her, saying, I finished arithmetic eight years ago, I 
shall not need this book. Mr. Tillinghast quietly said, you 
may find the book convenient for reference, and she retained 
it. The next day in the class exercise Mr. Tillinghast asked 
this young woman, what is the object of thought in the study 
of arithmetic? She had no answer. What is the principle of 
our system of numbering objects? She gave no answer. 
What is the principle of the Arabic system of notation? She 
could not tell. This preliminary questioning showed the 
teacher where to begin his teaching of this pupil, and showed 
her that she had something to learn in this subject. She 
said after the class exercise that she was never so ashamed 
as when these simple questions showed her her ignorance of 
the first principles of arithmetic. 

5. Preliminary questioning should touch as many related 
points in the pupil's own personal experience as possible. 
The aim of the lesson should be given in simple words and 
briefly so as to be easily held and followed. For example, the 
teacher says, I am going to teach you concerning the largest 
bird in the world. He lives in Africa and Asia and I cannot 
show you the bird himself. I shall ask you questions about 
where he lives, how he lives, and what he is; and then I 
shall show you a picture of the bird from which you can learn 
how he looks. 



206 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

How many of you have run along on a dry sandy beach 
near the ocean in a hot summer day? How many of you have 
looked out over the ocean when you saw nothing but water as 
far as you could see? The surface of the country where this 
bird lives is covered with sand like the beach, and it stretches 
away like the ocean as far as you can see. In this desert 
country there are at long distances from one another, little 
ponds about which grass and a few trees grow, these spots 
are called oases. This bird is so large and his wings are so 
small that he cannot fly. Where must he get his food and 
water? (From the oases. ) What kind of legs must he have 
to hold up his large body, and to run so far and so fast to get 
his food and drink? (Long, large legs.) What must he have 
on the bottom of his feet that he may run on the dry hot sand 
and not be foot sore? (A pad.) What kind of a neck must 
he have? (A long neck.) Why? The wind blows over this 
desert and drives the sand through the air. What must the 
bird have to protect his eyes so that he can see when the 
sand blows? (He has a third eyelid, which is tough and 
transparent, that he draws over his eyeball. ) Now I show 
you the picture of this bird. What do you see? (His great 
body, small wings, long strong legs, the pads on his feet, his 
long neck, and third eyelid.) Some of these birds weigh 300 
pounds. What is the name of this bird? How many of you 
have seen feathers from these birds? For what are they 
used? 

(2) By instructive questioning. 

1. The purpose of instructive questioning is to stimulate 
and direct the observation, thought, and expression of the 
learner in acquiring new knowledge for effective use. 

2. Instructive questioning should be definite. What can 
you tell me about the robin? is an indefinite question. What 
is the color of the robin? is a definite question. 

It should be stimulating, setting the learner on the alert 
to seek the answer. For example. How does the robin mas- 
ticate his food? Where are the robin's ears? 

It should contain no part of the answer, in so far as it 
does it destroys the quest. If the robin has no teeth and has 



THE ART OF TEACHING. 207 

a gizzard containing gravel stones how does he masticate his 
food? This question lacks zest. 

It should have a logical sequence, following the order of 
the steps the pupil must take to accomplish the definite aim 
of the lesson, — one question preparing the way for the next 
one. 

3. The teacher must keep a close watch of the move- 
ment of the pupil's mind, to determine the questions that he 
must ask to lead the pupil to think the thoughts of the lesson 
in logical sequence. 

4. It is evident that this questioning requires distinct 
knowledge, a definite aim, quick perception of mental activ- 
ity, and skill on the part of the teacher. 

5. Pupils appreciate skilful questioning. A little fellow 
in the Oswego Practice School, when the pupil teacher was 
endeavoring to get an answer to her question, said to her: 
"I know what answer you want but that question won't 
fetch it." 

(3) By direct statement. Some things cannot be devel- 
oped by questioning. Questioning requires skill, and it takes 
more time than we can sometimes command. 

1. Direct statement is necessary, first, to tell the pupil 
what he cannot discover without spending too much time and 
effort; second, to give the pupil a* connected view of the re- 
sults of teaching and study; third, to inspire the pupil with 
interest in his work. 

2. Statement should have a direct purpose; and should 
be simple, expressed in words easily understood; and precise, 
expressing neither more nor less than is meant. The pupil is 
to be trained to the intelligent use of books that he may avail 
himself of the treasures of other minds, by direct statement. 

(4) By clearness. Every class is composed of persons 
of different degrees of mental power and attainment. Some 
are quick and others are slow; some know more, others less. 
The teaching must be conducted with such clearness of 
thought and expression that every pupil shall comprehend it 
to the measure of his ability. 

(5) By deliberation. It is not possible to have all the 



208 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

pupils in the class of the same degree of attainment nor to 
bring all up to the same degree of comprehension. The 
teaching must therefore proceed with such degree of deliber- 
ation that all shall keep on together without weariness to the 
bright pupils and without discouragement to the dull pupils. 
This is not easy of accomplishment, it requires much skill in 
questioning, large resources in illustration, and quickness in 
perceiving each pupil's need, and often it will require addi- 
tional teaching with slower pupils. The brighter pupils 
should have additional work to keep them fully employed, 
either more work in the lesson or by taking another study. 

Third step. The Use of Motives to Secure Voluntary 
Exertion. 

(1) Spirit of the teacher. Since teaching is the inter- 
play of the teacher's life and the pupil's life the most influ- 
ential motive is the spirit of the teacher as manifested in his 
love for his work, in his forgetfulness of self, and in his per- 
sonal interest in the pupil. The pupil feels at once the per- 
sonal influence of the teacher, whether it be the atmosphere 
of the cold intellect or of the warm heart. 

(2) The manner of the teacher is the expression of his 
spirit, hence it is a strong motive. The qualities of a good 
manner are cheerfulness, animation, self-possession, enthu- 
siasm, decision, and a good attitude. 

1. Cheerfulness is the state of being habitually hopeful. 
A cheerful teacher is sunshine in the schoolroom. 

2. Animation is the state of being alive, on the alert. 
Animation in the teacher is the stimulus of life. 

3. Self-possession is the state of being in repose in ac- 
tion, in command of life. Self-possession in the teacher is 
power to influence others. 

4. Enthusiasm is the state of being inspired. Enthu- 
siasm in the teacher is a kindling fervor of soul which for- 
gets himself in being completely absorbed by his work. 

5. Decision is the act or habit of cutting short. Decision 
in the teacher is the promptitude and energy which brings 
things to pass without delay. 

6. Attitude is the manner in which the parts of one's 



THE ART OF TEACHING. 209 

body are disposed; it expresses the internal feeling. A good 
attitude in the teacher expresses a feeling which commends 
itself to the observer. Every movement of the teacher is 
observed. The position of the teacher should be where his 
eye can meet every eye in the class, that he may have direct 
communication with each one. The teacher's manner has 
great influence and should be worthy of imitation in every 
quality. 

(3) The voice of the teacher, in which his spirit uncon- 
sciously finds expression, has great influence upon the pupil. 
The essentials of a good voice are cheerful conversational 
tones, purity, distinctness, the right pitch and degree of 
force, and fluency. The teacher should listen to his own 
voice to know its quality, and should use every means to 
secure the essentials of good speaking in himself and in his 
pupils. 

{J^) The language of the teacher has much influence on 
his pupils. Its importance is two-fold, it is the medium of 
his thought; it is a model for his pupils. 

1. As the medium of his thought, it should be simple, 
and precise, To secure simplicity and precision the teacher 
must study the meaning of individual words to get first the 
primary meaning of the word, then the modifications of this 
meaning in its other uses, so that he can compare one mean- 
ing with another, and one word with another, and choose the 
one which best fits the idea he is to express. And he must 
suit his language to the comprehension of his pupils; this 
greatly increases the effect of what he says. 

2. As a model for his pupils, the teacher's language 
should be correct in pronunciation, in construction and in the 
choice of words. The teacher must observe the language he 
uses; if he is in doubt about pronounciation he should con- 
sult the dictionary; if he has any question concerning con- 
struction he should go at once to his grammar; if he would 
use words fitly chosen he must look well to his own thinking, 
and observe carefully the language of good speakers and 
writers. 

3. Pupils unconsciously imitate the language they hear 



210 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

and read, and especially the language of the teacher; they 
look to him as an authority in the use of language. The 
teacher has a continual opportunity for cultivating language 
and a corresponding responsibility. 

(5) The dictate of conscience should be the ruling motive 
with the pupil. What ought I to do? is the primary question 
in relation to every moral act. To do what I ought should be 
the rule of action with every pupil. Hence, the teacher 
should lead the pupil to consider the value of what he is 
about to do, and to do whatever is necessary to be done 
because it ought to be done and to find pleasure in so doing. 
The example of the teacher, his precepts, and his appeals to 
the pupil should all be means to this end. 

{6) Power of these motives. The spirit, manner, voice, 
language, and moral principle of the teacher are motives 
which constantly appeal to the pupil and are potent for good 
or evil according to their quality. 

Fourth step. Acquisition and Expression of Ideas by 
Pupils. The pupil with the proper object of thought before 
him, directed by the instructive questioning of the teacher, 
and influenced by right motives, will be led to acquire and 
express ideas from the object in a living way. His mind is 
appealed to through the eye and ear, and by his own exertion 
he acquires knowledge and appreciates it. He puts himself 
into his acquisition. 

{!) Oral expression. As the pupil acquires the ideas, 
he is to be led to make the expression of them orally in good 
English with attention to all the particulars of good expres- 
sion. 

{2) Written expression. And he must be required to 
express his ideas in writing with such frequency as to acquire 
facility in writing. Brief exercises in writing in connection 
with daily lessons is effective in cultivating written expres- 
sion. Every lesson thus becomes a lesson in language. It is 
not mere facts of knowledge that he gets, but power of 
thought and expression. 

Fifth step. Recapitulation; The last step in the intro- 



THE ART OF TEACHING. 211 

ductory teaching is the recapitulation by the learner of what 
has been taught. 

(1) Orally. In teaching young pupils, the teacher 
should have the pupils repeat the points of the lesson, that 
they may take it into their minds as a whole. 

(2) In luriting. In teaching a lesson to older pupils, 
the points should be briefly written on the board as they are 
made and then recapitulated by the pupils in closing the 
lesson, thus representing to their minds the analytic and 
synthetic view of what has been taught, through the two 
senses, sight and hearing. When the pupils have been 
taught a lesson in the manner indicated above they know 
what they are to do, and how to do it, and have an interest 
in the study. 

§V. Third Stage. 

Study by the Pupils. (1) The class must make thorough 
study of what has been considered in the introductory teach- 
ing, for the assimilation of the thought, for its accurate ex- 
pression, and for its application. 

(2) Young pupils, who are not able to study by them- 
selves must repeat the lesson with the teacher to fix it in the 
mind. As fast as he is able, the pupil should be required to 
study the lesson by himself. 

(3) The order of study. The lesson should be studied 
first in outline to get its aim and scope, then to get the main 
thoughts in the order of their dependence with the subordi- 
nate thoughts under each. The study of the lesson should 
follow the order of the introductory teaching. Both the 
thought and the expression are to be studied with reference 
to using them. This trains the pupils to systematic thought 
and expression. 

§ VI. The Fourth Stage, Examination of the Class. 

1. Systematic and Thorough Examination of the Class is 
Necessary to Secure the Requisite Study. Study is work and 
must have an incentive. If the pupil knows he is sure to be 
tested he will prepare for it to avoid failure. When the love 



212 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

of study is awakened, it is a strong incentive. The exami- 
nation should follow the order and cover the ground of the 
teaching. 

2. Presentation of Topics. The first mode of examina- 
tion is by having the pupils present the topics of the lesson, 
starting with the outline of the lesson, then presenting the 
successive thoughts of the lesson. 

(1) To present a topic is to lay it before the hearers' 
perception clearly, forcibly, and persuasively. 

(2) After the presentation of a topic by a pupil, addi- 
tions to the subject matter should be made by the pupils and 
by the teacher if need be. 

(3) And criticism of the subject and its presentation 
should be made by pupil and teacher in the form of discus- 
sion. 

(4) Examination by presentation requires of the pupil 
thorough preparation, he must begin, go on, and finish his 
presentation without help; it cultivates self-reliance and 
power of expression in the pupil, to stand before the class, 
think on his feet, and express his thought so as to hold the 
attention of the class. 

(5) The opportunity to add to the subject matter and to 
discuss after the presentation by a pupil encourages the 
pupils to extend their research in the study of the lesson; to 
give close attention to what is said and done in the class; and 
to take voluntary part in the discussion ; all of which is train- 
ing for life among their fellows outside the school. 

(6) Examination questioning should accompany pre- 
sentation, that all the class may be engaged in the lesson. 

3. Teaching the Topics. The second way of examina- 
tion is to require the pupils to teach the different topics of 
the lesson with criticism by pupils and teacher. 

(1) This secures close attention to the method of study, 
that one may be able to lead other minds to acquire knowl- 
edge. Teaching requires more thoughtful preparation than 
presenting. 

(2) This method of examining may be used in the 
grades when the teacher has his class in good training; in 



THE ART OF TEACHING. 213 

normal school teaching it is essential, to give the pupil com- 
mand of himself, of the subject, and of the class. 

(3) Examination questioning should accompany teach- 
ing the topics, that all the class may take part in the exer- 
cise. 

4. Questioning the Class. The third mode of examina- 
tion is to question the class upon all the important points of 
the lesson. 

(1) Not all the class can present or teach in one class 
exercise, but by adding the questioning all the class can be 
tested. 

(2) Examination questioning shoujd be definite and 
searching; its purpose is to test the pupil. It should be 
prompt and keep the class on the alert. If it appears in the 
testing of the class that they have failed to understand a 
point in the lesson, instructive questioning or direct state- 
ment should be used to make it clear. 

(3) All the pupils should be questioned, and they should 
be called promiscuously. The question should be put before 
calling the pupil who is to answer. This course holds the 
attention of the class, as no one knows when his turn is 
coming. 

(4) A good answer is a complete statement which 
shows thoughtfulness. There is a tendency in answering to 
give only the predicate of the answer. Answers should be 
received in a way which will encourage the pupil to answer 
freely, by giving him credit for what is good, and showing 
wherein the answer is defective. Imperfect answers should 
not be accepted as good. Neither should the teacher say 
frequently to the answer, "right," or "that is right," or 
" very good." 

5. Written Answers. The fourth mode of examination 
is by wTitten answers. 

(1) The questions for this exercise should require appli- 
cation of what has been taught. This examination is needful 
to cultivate the pupil's power of extended written expression. 

(2) The written papers should be carefully examined 
and marked by the teacher. Pupils should be so placed as to 



214 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

secure individual work in written answers. New topics may 
be presented in writing after the manner in which similar 
topics have been considered by the class. This examination 
tests the pupil's grasp of the method of treating the topics. 

(3) Written examinations should not be given so often 
as to have the examination of the papers exhausting to the 
teacher. He needs to come to his daily work in the school- 
room refreshed and vigorous. 

6. Laboratory Exercises. The fifth mode of examining 
is by exercises in laboratory work similar to those which 
have been taken requring the application of what has been 
learned, and the results should be briefly stated, either orally 
or in writing. 

7. Cumulative Examination. Examinations should be 
cumulative, coming at frequent intervals, each ranging over 
all of the subject that has been considered. These are in 
every way better than to give only final examinations at the 
end of the term and of the year. The cumulative examina- 
tion comes under the law of repetition, by which the mind 
strengthens the association of its ideas, and holds them for 
use as occasion calls for them. Final examinations coming 
at long intervals favor indolence, foster cramming, fret the 
spirit, and fail to secure the knowledge. 

8. Recapitulation. Recapitulation of the thoughts of the 
lesson, of a division of the subject, and of the whole subject 
is necessary to teach the relation of the parts of the lesson 
and the subject. Repetition strengthens the representative 
power and the association of thoughts by which the knowl- 
edge is held for use. 

9. Reviews. (1) The review of a lesson, division, or 
subject is necessary to fix in the mind the previous view, and 
to acquire a new and more extended view of it and of the 
relations of its parts. 

(2) Every review should be an advance in the knowl- 
edge of the subject, not a mere recitation of former state- 
ments. 

(3) A large part of the time given to the acquisition of 
a subject should be allowed for review under the law of 



THE ART OF TEACHING. 215 

repetition. The advance in the study of a subject is like lay- 
ing shingles on a roof, a constant lapping of the parts. 

(4) Each lesson should be reviewed and'connected with 
the lesson that follows. Each main division of the subject 
should be reviewed as the condition for the intelligent study 
of the next division. The subject should be reviewed as a 
whole to strengten the association of the parts. 

(5) The review should follow the order of the topical 
arrangement, the subject, the main division of the subject 
the principal topics of each division, then the subordinate 
thoughts of each principal topic. 

(6) The form of the review should be so varied as to 
keep a lively interest. This is essential to prevent the re- 
view from becoming formal, routine work. Definitions 
should be given verbatim. • 

(7) Much application of what is taught is necessary to 
give the pupil power and the command of his knowledge. 
This should be conducted with skill and care so that it shall 
not be a tread-mill performance. 

10. Criticism Defined. Criticism is impartial judgment 
without prejudice. 

(1) "Neither praise nor blame is the object of true 
criticism, but to discriminate justly, to establish firmly, to 
present wisely, to award honestly." This means that the 
purpose of true criticism is neither to praise nor to blame; 
this thought should be kept in mind definitely. Its purpose 
is to discriminate justly both excellences and defects; to 
establish firmly in the mind the true, the beautiful, the good, 
to the exclusion of all that is false, defective, or bad; to pre- 
sent the excellences and defects so wisely that the excellence 
shall be chosen and the defect shall be avoided; to award 
honestly to each one what is due to him in this impartial 
judgment. 

(2) Criticism should take the form of discussion, not of 
dogmatic approval or condemmation, which gives it the form 
of praise and blame. One who can criticise truly has reached 
a high attainment. 

(3) Criticism by pupils and teacher is an essential of 



216 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

teaching. It secures close attention to what is done in the 
class, and prepares the pupil to make and receive criticism in 
a kindly spirit, which is a valuable acquisition for every day 
life. Everybody criticises. Shall it be done harshly, or 
kindly, in the spirit of helpfulness? There is a prevalent 
misconception that criticism is mere faultfinding. So strong 
is the tendendency to harsh judgment that the Master made 
it a special topic in his teaching the application of the golden 
rule in his sermon on the mount. Matthew, chap. 7. 

§VIL Teacher's Daily Work for Teaching. 

1. Special Preparation Daily. The teacher should make 
careful special preparation for each day's work. 

(1) He should carefully consider each lesson before 
coming to it with his class; to fix definitely in mind the aim 
of the lesson; to freshen and extend his knowledge of the 
subject; to secure the best arrangement of ideas; to make 
ready the best illustrations; and to connect the preceding 
and subsequent lessons. 

(2) He should carefully provide for the full employment 
of all his pupils for the day; and he should think through the 
day's work in the morning before beginning it, that he may 
be ready for any emergency. 

(3) He should review the day's work at night, that he 
may profit by the experience of the day. Such preparation 
will make teaching interesting and profitable. 

2. General Culture Daily. The teacher should be a daily 
student in lines outside his school work, that he may have 
mental vigor and fresh thought for his daily use. He cannot 
keep up his own growth without this study. " Cultivation is 
as necessary to the mind as food is to the body." 

(1) He should study natural objects, that he may know 
how to use them and be in sympathy with nature; 

(2) Men, that he may know how to serve them and 
come into Hving touch with them; 

(3) The Bible which is the book of the child in the 
beautiful and simple stories of its children; the book of the 
youth in " the aspirations after ideals, and friendships, and 



THE ART OF TEACHING. 217 

heroism, and love" so strikingly illustrated in its youths; 
the book of the mature man in the stimulus and self-revela- 
tion of the lives of the multitude of noble men and women 
which it portrays, and above all in the perfect life of Jesus. 
It is a personal book, it gives something for every one, it fits 
every need of the soul, and gives the highest principles of 
action, the highest standards of literature and wisdom; 

(4) Educational works, that he may understand his 
own professional work; 

(5) Standard writings, that he may gather the best 
thoughts of men; 

(6) Current literature, that he may know the thought 
of his own time; 

(7) The principles of government, that he may know 
how to control himself and others. 

(8) "Books like friends should be few and well chosen. '' 

(9) The teacher is to read the best, and take some time 
daily for this study and reading. 

3. How Shall the Teacher Secure Daily Preparation and 
General Culture? 

(1) By possession of good natural ability and aptitude 
for his work. 

(2) By a thorough general and special preparation 
before starting upon his school work. Scholarship, general 
and vocational, is indispensable to good teaching. 

(3) By obeying the laws of his physical life. 

(4) By obeying the laws of his rational life. 

(5) By diligent use of time and energy. 

(6) By making out the general plan for each study in 
advance, that he may have only specific points to prepare 
daily. 

(7) By having "a study " where he can work by him- 
self, which is always ready for study. 

(8) By working freely and systematically in his study. 

(9) By securing all the helps to his work which he can 
command. 

(10) " By having a place for everything and everything 
in its place. ' ' 



218 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

(11) By having a time for everything and everything in 
its time. 

(12) By association with his fellow teachers and the 
observation of their work. 

(13) By going into good society to a reasonable extent. 

(14) By using his vacation as much as he can for travel 
and study of nature. 

(15) By observing the occupations of men and asking 
information of them concerning their specialties. 

(16) By securing the aid of pupils and parents in provid- 
ing means of illustration for class teaching. 

(17) By looking on the bright side of everything and 
everybody. 

(18) It will be seen from this view of the subject that 
the principles of education are the general, the art of teach- 
ing is the particular, expression of the same facts. 

§VIII. Directions for Study and Class Work. 

1. Preparation of Lessons. 

Lessons given in topics, arranged in natural and logical 
order. Study every lesson with reference to teaching. 

1. Study the outline of topics given to get the scope 
of the lesson. 

2. Study the topics in the order given: 

(1) To get distinct and complete ideas of the object of 
thought. 

(2) To arrange the ideas in the order of their depen- 
dence. 

(3) To get the right mode of communicating the ideas. 

(a) Get illustrations of the ideas, pertinent, plain, a 
sufficient number. 

(b) Get an expression of the ideas, simple, correct, 
precise. 

(c) Rehearse the lesson. In outline, to fix the order of 
topics. Each topic just as you would teach or present it. 

2. Class Work. 

Teaching. 1. Illustrate. One thing at a time. In the 
order of dependence. According to its importance. Econo- 



THE ART OF TEACHING. 219 

mize time. Keep the attention of every pupil. 2. Ask 
definite questions. No leading question. Question before 
name of pupil. Complete answers. No repetition of answer 
of pupil. No telling pupil what he already knows. 3. Indi- 
cate neatly the points, as made, on the blackboard. Dis- 
tinctly impress each point. 4, Recapitulate. Require a 
complete, connected statement of points taught. 

Presenting. 1. Illustrate. 2. Present points distinctly 
in order. According to their importance. Be prompt. Look 
at the class, and keep the attention of all. 3. Indicate the 
points neatly on the board. 4. Recapitulate. 

Examining the Class. 1. By pupils teaching the topics, 
with criticism, by class, by teacher. 2. By pupils presenting 
the topics, with additions, by pupils, by teacher. Criticism, 
by class, by teacher. 3. By teacher questioning class to test 
their knowledge of lesson. Questions definite, searching, to 
contain no part of the answer, on all important points of 
lesson. Answers correct, complete. Test every pupil. 

Criticism: by Class, by Teacher. Of good quahties and 
defects in preparation and class-work. A kind spirit in all 
criticism. Its object is improvement. Teacher point out the 
cause of defects. Criticism should take the form of discus- 
sion. 

Assigning Lesson. By topics. Teach topics which re- 
quire it. Class note carefully the topics and method of teach- 
ing. Distinctly indicate how to prepare lesson. 

The Right Spirit. Resolve to do always what ought to 
be done. Work for others. 

Manner. Qualities of a good manner are cheerfulness, 
animation, self-possession, enthusiasm, decision. Note posi- 
tion and hearing, as affecting control of the class. 

Use of the Voice. Secure cheerful, conversational tones, 
purity, distinctness, right pitch, force, and modulations, and 
fluency. Use of Language. Use simple words and sentences. 
Be precise. Make accurate and complete statements. Be 
correct, in pronunciation, grammatical construction, and 
choice of words. 



CHAPTER XXII. 
SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 

Order is the Child of Beauty and Wisdom. — Johnson. 

§1. Organization and Its Utility. 

1. A School of All Grades. We consider the organiza- 
tion of a single school which includes all the grades of pupils 
below the high school under the control of one teacher in 
one room. Such a school furnishes all the problems of or- 
ganization except a few which come to the principal of a 
large school composed of all the grades of pupils having one 
or more classes of each grade. 

2. Organization Defined. To organize a school is to ar- 
range and assign the work of each pupil so that every one 
shall constantly have full employment, and all shall work in 
harmony. Pupils expect to be set to work and kept at work 
by a teacher in whose leadership they have confidence. 

(1) The arrangement of work is to be made, as far as 
possible, before coming to the school that the assignment 
may be made promptly and the school move on in its work 
without any delay. 

(2) Provision must be made for constant and full em- 
ployment of every pupil. Unless each one is at work under 
the direction of the teacher, he will find employment for him- 
self along other lines and disorder will arise. 

(3) It is indispensable to the effective working of an 
organism that every part of it shall work in harmony with 
every other part; if it does not, there is friction, which will 
soon wreck the organism. 

3. Advantages of Organization. A good organization en- 
ables the teacher to do the most work possible in the time of 
the school session. 



SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 221 

(1) It is vitally important that there should be no loss 
of time in the school, because there is not sufficient time for 
all the work that needs to be done. 

(2) A good organization enables the teacher to govern 
the school more easily. If pupils are kept fully employed 
under skilful direction there is no time for mischief on their 
part. 

(3) It places the pupils under the most favorable condi- 
tions for advancement. If the pupil knows just w^hat he is 
to do, and how^ to do it, it only remains to furnish the incen- 
tive for work. If the pupil has it in himself he moves on, if 
he has not, the teacher must stimulate him to effort. 

§11. Preliminary Preparations. 

1. The Beginning Decides the Issue. The way in which 
the teacher begins his work decides what is to follow. The 
new teacher is a stranger to the pupils. Their first work is 
to take the measure of his bearing, his acts, and his words, 
to decide what relation he is to hold to them, hence the im- 
portance that first impressions shall be correct and favorable. 

2. A Definite Plan of Work. A definite plan for all 
work in school is indispensable, and especially is this true at 
the' beginning. Suppose a building contractor is to start on 
Monday morning upon the construction of a building with 
forty men in his employ; it is apparent that he should have a 
complete plan of the building, that he should have all build- 
ing materials needed ready on the ground, and that he should 
be ready to set every man to work. It is more important that 
a teacher who is to begin school on Monday morning with 
forty pupils should be definitely ready to set every one profit- 
ably to work, because these pupils are less qualified and less 
inclined to set themselves to work. The teacher must be de- 
finitely ready for doing the first day's work, and for assign- 
ing lessons for the second day, hence, he must have, at least, 
the work of the first two days definitely arranged before he 
begins. 

3. Going Early to His Work. It is necessary that the 
teacher should go to his work before the day of beginning. 



222 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

(1) He must get his certificate from the school commit- 
tee. He is not the teacher of the school until he has this cer- 
tificate, and he must have his school register for use the first 
day of school. He must secure a boarding place and become 
settled there, that he may be ready to give attention to his 
school work without interruption. 

(2) He should visit his schoolroom, become familiar 
with its appointments, see that it is in order, and learn who is 
to take care of it, and make a plan of the seats of the pupils. 
He should learn what text books and supplies are needed and 
should see that they are ready for use at the opening of the 
school. In Massachusetts, he looks to the superintendent 
for supplies and books. 

(3) He should learn as far as possible the actual condi- 
tion of the school, its classification, and the status of the dif- 
ferent classes in their studies. The best source for this 
information is the preceding teacher. If this source is not 
available, he should get all the information he can from the 
superintendent and the school committee. 

(4) He should ascertain, as far as he can, the public 
sentiment in relation to schools, the degree of interest which 
the parents and the community have in the education of the 
children, and the standard of school government they are 
willing to sustain. This information may be obtained from 
the superintendent, the school committee, and from intelli- 
gent persons in the community who are accessible to the 
teacher. 

4. Make Definite Preparation. After making his own 
observations and getting this preliminary information the 
teacher should go to his room and make definite preparation 
for opening his school. 

§111. Opening of the School. 

1. Be Early at Schoolroom. The teacher should be early 
at the schoolroom to open it, to prepare for the day's work, 
and to observe his pupils as he has opportunity. The teacher 
is responsible for the proper use of the school premises dur- 



SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 223 

ing the school days and he is to see to the opening and clos- 
ing of the school building. 

2. Manner of Meeting Pupils. The spirit and manner in 
which the teacher meets his pupils is very important. He 
should be easy of approach to all his pupils and yet keep 
them at a respectful distance. He should enter into their 
life in work and play in such a way that they will feel that 
he has a personal interest in them, and yet have them under 
full control as their teacher. In so far as he joins in the 
sports of his pupils the teacher must be able to hold his posi- 
tion as leader or as a quick learner. His pupils expect him 
to lead and to lead well in everything. 

3. Calling School From Playground. In calling the school 
from the playground the teacher should use a hand bell, un- 
less there is a gong on the school building. The bell gives a 
clear, ringing sound, is easily heard, and is the instrument 
generally used for calling people together. The teacher 
should be sure to have the bell ready for use the first morn- 
ing. To be without it is to invite defeat in the control of the 
school. Use a call-bell to get the attention of the school in 
the schoolroom. 

4. Devotional Exercises. The school should be opened 
daily by brief, devotional exercises. The law of Massachu- 
setts requires the reading daily in the public schools of a 
portion of the Bible. To the reading of an appropriate "se- 
lection from the Bible may be added the singing of a hymn 
and a prayer. It is best that the reading should be by the 
teacher. Singing a hymn as a part of the devotional exercises 
is desirable; the teacher should know that it can be done 
before attempting it. The Lord's prayer may be used or the 
teacher may pray orally, or he may read a written prayer. 
In some states reading the Bible and prayer are not allowed. 

5. Assigning Seats and Work. After the opening exer- 
cises, the pupils should be seated with the understanding that 
changes may be made if necessary; then proceed to assign 
work and issue books to the pupils so far as necessary to keep 
them employed. Adopt temporarily the classification of the 
preceding term, and follow this until such changes as are 



224 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

necessary can be. intelligently made. If the teacher has not 
been able to learn before-hand the classification of the school 
and the status of the classes, he will have to call upon each 
class to stand, and then inquire of one of them where they 
left off in the subject at the end of the preceding term; then 
assign the lesson to the class. He must decide which subject 
shall be assigned first, and what in it shall be assigned. The 
teacher must be prepared to assign several kinds of seat work 
to the younger pupils who cannot study books, so that as 
soon as they tire of one kind another may be given them. All 
the pupils should be provided with full employment. 

6. Registering Pupils. In registering pupils prepare a 
blank for the purpose and record as follows: — 



Names. 


yrs. 


mos. 


R'g. 


S'g. 


Arith. 


Geog. 


Hist. 


Gram. 


Ames, Wm. E. 


14 


5 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


Bird, Jos. A. 


10 


4 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 



The figures under the names of the subjects indicate the 
class in which the pupil is. The teacher should stand before 
the school and take from each pupil his record in the order of 
their seats. In taking this record, the teacher should asso- 
ciate the face of each pupil with his name, so far as he can, 
that he may be able as soon as practicable to call the pupil 
by his name. 

7. Hearing Lessons. After taking this record, the 
teacher should hear the lessons that were assigned, give 
another lesson in the same subject for the next day, then 
assign a lesson in another subject for immediate preparation, 
and so continue through the day. The object to be obtained 
in conducting the class exercises of the first few days is to 
ascertain the ability and attainments of each pupil prepara- 
tory to permanent classification. When this knowledge is 
obtained, proceed carefully to make such changes in the 
classification as are necessary. Make general regulations 
promptly as occasion calls for them. The pupils will then 
follow them more readily because they see that they were 
made from necessity. 

8. Work of First Night. At night the teacher should 
use the record taken in the morning and enter the names of 



SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 225 

the pupils in the register, alphabetically arranged. It is well 
to have a scratch register, arranged for two weeks, for use 
through the day, from which to copy into the school register, 
so as to keep it clean and correct. Also, enter the pupils' 
names in the plan of seats to keep on his table for reference 
in calling the pupils by name. He should make lists of the 
pupils in the different classes on separate slips of paper to 
use in conducting the class exercises, and should notice what 
studies each pupil has, to see that every one has proper em- 
ployment. The teacher should take time to observe the 
working of the classification in the daily exercises, and to 
consider the changes carefully before making them. 

§IV. Classification of Pupils. 

1. Classification Defined. Classification is placing in a 
class those pupils whose abilities and attainments enable 
them to work together profitably in the Same studies. Some- 
times the age of the pupil must be considered. If an older 
pupil is backward it may be better to place him with those 
near his own age than with the younger pupils. If a young 
pupil is precocious it may be better for him to keep him with 
pupils of his own age than to let him go on with older pupils. 
The best classification is to have all the members of the class 
take the same studies. Sometimes it is necessary for a pupil 
to take different studies with different classes. 

2. The Effect of a Large Class upon the teaching lis to 
require more effort and skill on the part of the teacher to 
hold the attention of all, and keep every one up to his best 
work. Its effect upon the study by the pupil and upon the 
examination of the class is to make it less thorough, because 
each pupil cannot be so frequently and fully tested. 

3. The Effect of a Small Class upon the teaching is to 
require a less expenditure of energy by the teacher; upon 
study by the pupil to make it more thorough, because the 
pupil knows he may be brought up on all parts of the lesson; 
upon the examination of the class, to make it close, because 
there is time to test every pupil. 

4. The Size of the Class is to be Determined : By the 



226 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

age of the pupils, with young pupils the classes must be 
small because each pupil must receive more individual atten- 
tion; by the form of the class exercise, if it requires individual 
work the class must be smaller, if it permits work in concert 
the class may be larger; by the skill of the teacher, if he is 
skilful he can deal successfully with the larger class; by the 
amount of work the teacher has to do, if he has much work 
he will have to make his classes larger. 

5. The Steps in Forming Classes: — 

Ascertain the ability and attainments of each pupil; 

Make a list of the studies of each grade; 

Compute the time for class exercises by deducting the 
time for devotional and general exercises and recesses from 
the total time of the school sessions; 

Decide upon the number of class exercises you ought to 
have; 

Form that number of classes. 

§V. Order of Exercises. 

1. An Order of Exercises. The teacher should make an 
order of daily exercises and adhere to it so that all may know 
when each exercise is to come and be ready for it. Devia- 
tion from the order produces confusion; regularity promotes 
efficiency. Such an order helps to form habits of order and 
punctuality, to control the school, and to save time; because 
everyone knows what he is expected to do, when he is to do 
it, and when it will be done. 

2. Distribution of Time on Subjects. In deciding the time 
to be given to each subject, the relative importance of the 
study should be considered. Those studies which are instru- 
ments in the acquisition of other knowledge, as reading, 
spelling, penmanship, drawing, composition, and arithmetic, 
should have sufficient time to make them so familiar that the 
pupil may use them effectively in pursuing other subjects. 
The condition of the school with respect to a need of the 
study should be a consideration. If any one study has re- 
ceived undue attention less time may be allowed to it; if any 
study has been neglected, it should receive more attention 



SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 227 

until it is brought up to its proper place. A just distribution 
of time to each subject should be insisted upon. 

3. The Time and Length of Class Exercises should be 
fixed that the pupils may know when each is to come, may be 
prepared for it, and come to it promptly. Study and class 
exercises should alternate as far as practicable, especially 
with the younger pupils. The length of the class exercises 
for young pupils should not exceed fifteen minutes, for gram- 
mar grades it may be twenty to thirty minutes. The larger 
the number of classes to be heard the shorter the exercises 
must be, but the time must not be too short. 

4. The General Exercise with the whole school is an im- 
portant exercise for teaching things which every pupil needs, 
and for giving unity to the school life. It is economy of 
time and effort to deal with the school as a whole in things 
helpful to all. This exercise should come in the morning, 
immediately after the devotional exercises, when the school 
is fresh and ready to give attention. 

5. Order of Taking Subjects. The severer studies should 
come in the earlier part of the day, because the pupils are 
then more vigorous. The studies should be taken in such 
order as to give variety of mental exercise, so as to keep up 
the interest of the pupils. A daily lesson in each subject is 
the best order. With the youngest pupils the lesson in the 
same subject should come every half day. When classes are 
small, the teacher may economize time by conducting two or 
three classes in the same subject in the same period. This 
can be done in arithmetic. The pupils can be doing examples 
in different parts of the subject at the same time, and the 
teacher can examine one class while another is working ex- 
amples, so as to hear all within the limit of the class period. 
The next best plan is to alternate daily two related studies, 
as drawing and writing, history and geography; or to have 
one study for half a term, or for a term, and then the other 
for the same time. 

6. Steps in Making the Order of Exercises: 
Make a list of class exercises for each grade. 

Divide the time of class work among the several studies; 



228 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

Determine the time and length of each exercise; 

Write the order and place it before the school; 

A good clock, placed where both teacher and pupil can 
see it, is a necessity in the schoolroom, that all may come to 
time in their work, 

§VL Provisions Relating to Order. 

1. School Limits and School Property. Pupils should be 
kept on the grounds upon which they have a right to play, 
and within call of the teacher, to keep them from trespassing 
and under control. They should be trained to a proper re- 
gard for the school property, and to respect all public pro- 
perty. The out-buildings should be under the daily inspec- 
tion of the teacher, that they may be kept in a cleanly condi- 
tion. They should be kept under lock and key when not in 
use. This training is essential to good behavior, at school 
and in the community. 

2. Recesses. Recesses need careful attention from the 
teacher. His time at recess should be wholly given to look- 
ing after the movement of the school, to see that there is 
good behavior by all pupils, and to keep in check any immoral 
tendencies. The length of the recess is usually fifteen min- 
utes in the three hour session, and is taken soon after the 
middle of the session. Both sexes should take the out-door 
recess at the same time, if they have separate yards and out- 
buildings; if not, the boys should have half the fifteen min- 
utes outside while the girls have recess indoors, and the 
reverse. Every pupil should have a recess. If it is neces- 
sary to deprive a pupil of recess with his fellows on account 
of misconduct with them, he should have his recess alone. 

3. Calling and Dismissing School and Classes. The 
teacher should be careful about calling and dismissing the 
classes and the school. The school should be called at least 
five minutes before the time for the session to begin, so that 
every pupil shall be ready in his place for the beginning. It 
takes at least five mintes for all to be ready. Tardiness in 
beginning the session means tardiness all through the ses- 
sion. The class should be called by the voice rather than by 



SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 229 

the bell. It is the easier, pleasanter, and more effective way 
of calling. The pupils should move in files to prevent con- 
fusion and delay. The school session should close punctually, 
to train the pupils to punctuality and promptness in their 
work. The school should file out and go quietly from the 
school grounds, observing the law of the highway. This law 
requires that we shall not obstruct the highway, and that we 
turn to the right and give half the road or sidewalk to those 
we meet. 

4. Making Requests. Pupils should be trained to make 
requests at the right time and in the proper manner, and not 
to make unnecessary requests. Class exercises should not be 
interrupted by requests except they are really necessary. 
Directions for the work should be given so definitely by the 
teacher as to make it unnecessary to ask for explanations. 
Pupils should be trained to work independently, and to pro- 
vide themselves beforehand with the things needed for doing 
their work. If it is necessary for a pupil to ask for a privi- 
lege, he should indicate his want by raising his hand and 
have the privilege by permission from the teacher. 

The teacher should notice the request and grant the priv- 
ilege when it is necessary. The pupil should not be allowed 
to tell tales of his fellow pupils, but there are complaints that 
he may properly make and information that he may properly 
give and they should receive the attention of the teacher. 
Any violation of the pupil's rights either of person or pro- 
perty is just ground for complaint. The teacher should prac- 
tice the "Golden Rule" and train his pupils to do the same. 

5. Value of Good Organization. Careful attention to all 
the details of a good organization is very remunerative to the 
teacher. In a well organized school the teacher has only to 
keep up the motive power and everything runs smoothly, be- 
cause every member of the school knows what he has to do, 
how it is done, and when, and he finds pleasure in the doing. 
The school moves on quietly and forcefully, like a great en- 
gine with every part fitted to its place, and every cog and 
bearing well lubricated. A good organization works for 
righteousness, peace, and true living. 



CHAPTER XXIII. 
PRINCIPLES OF GOVERNMENT. 

The best government is that which teaches self government. — Goethe. 

§1. Moral Training. 

1. Moral Training Defined. Moral training is training 
the pupil to choose and act rationally. Choice and action are 
rational when they meet the approval of an enlightened con- 
science. Our tendency is to choose an act according to our 
likes and dislikes. To control our natural impulses hy reason 
and conscience often requires strenuous effort. The neces- 
sity for moral training is apparent to every one who thinks 
of what he is. 

2. What Moral Training Requires. Moral training re- 
quires warm sympathy, to hold the pupil close to the teacher; 
tact to prevent unpleasant issues; patience, the art of waiting 
for fruit; and an even temper, to make life run smoothly. 

3. How Pupil Must be Led. The teacher as governor, 
must make a careful study of his pupil to note the trend of his 
thinking, feeling, and wilhng. The pupil is led to know 
what he ought to do by being required to do it regularly. He 
is to be led to know why he should do as he ought that he 
may act from principle. He should be led to feel the power 
of right motives. He should be led to exert his will in doing 
what he knows to be right, until the habit of right doing is 
established. 

4. Requisite Knowledge. The teacher must have a 
thorough knowledge of self-control and self-direction. He 
will find his greatest help in gaining this knowledge in the 
thoughtful reading of the Bible, which holds the mirror up 
before every phase of human life. 



PRINCIPLES OF GOVERNMENT. 231 

5. Example of the Teacher. The most effective presen- 
tation of these principles is made through the example of the 
teacher who exhibits in himself a wise self-control and a 
steady self-direction. Opportunities for teaching the princi- 
ples of self-control and self-direction come every day in 
school life, and pupils greatly need help in coming to a clear 
comprehension of these principles, and in the extension of 
them to all their conduct. 

§ II. Government. 

1. To Govern Defined. To govern either one's self or 
others is to direct and control his action according to the laws 
of life. We live under physical, vital, intellectual, emotional, 
moral, and spiritual laws. These laws are established by the 
Creator. By them all things consist; without them nothing 
is stable. All the blessings of life come through obedience to 
law. The first duty of every teacher is to feel and to teach 
reverence for law. Lawlessness is the great sin. 

2. How Right to Govern Arises. The right to govern 
arises from the relation which the one who governs holds to 
the subject. God has the right to govern all because he is 
the Creator and sustainer of all. The chief executive of the 
state or nation has the right to govern because he holds to 
the people the relation of ruler. The parent has the right to 
control his child, because he holds to the child the relation of 
parent. The teacher has the right to govern his pupil, be- 
cause he holds to the pupil the relation of teacher. 

3. What Government Requires of the Governor. Gov- 
ernment requires that the governor shall exercise his author- 
ity as occasion calls for its exercise, and that he shall exer- 
cise it for the good of the subject. The exercise of authority 
requires in the governor wisdom, to judge truly concerning 
the rights and the duties of both the ruler and the subject; 
power, that he may execute his decisions; and goodness, that 
he may make the right use of his power. If the one in au- 
thority lacks wisdom he cannot govern; if he lacks power, 
his government is weak; if he lacks goodness, his govern- 
ment is despotic. 



232 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

4. W^hat Government Requires of the Subject. Govern- 
ment requires of the subject compliance with the require- 
ments of authority; it may be mere conformity to the will of 
the governor, given because the subject feels that he must 
comply with the requirement; or it may be obedience, which 
is prompt, implicit, and cheerful compliance with the require- 
ments of authority. John is requested to clean the black- 
board, he starts at once, asks no questions, and does it with 
manifest willingness. He obeys. Obedience implies that 
the subject has faith in the governor; his request or com- 
mand is 'sufficient reason for the subject to do what is re- 
quired of him. 

5. Basis of School Government. The control of the 
school is based upon the principles of good government. The 
teacher cannot secure the good of the pupil except he gov- 
erns. The necessity of school government is found in the 
fact that the pupils have not acquired the full power of self- 
control. The end of school government is to train the pupil 
to self-control and self-direction. This end is accomplished 
by securing conformity and obedience to righteous authority. 

§111. How Obedience is Best Secured. 

1. By Arrangement of School Exercises. The first means 
to securing conformity and obedience is the proper arrange- 
ment of the school exercises. This arrangement is simple, 
easily understood, and followed; definite, leaving no uncer- 
tainty, providing a time and place for everything; practical, 
adapted to the needs of the school. Such an arrangement of 
exercises is pleasing to the pupils and makes the school seem 
to move on of itself; this motive power is silent but effective. 

2. By Good Management. The second means to secur- 
ing conformity and obedience is good management. This re- 
quires first good judgment, so that the teacher will decide 
wisely what is best to be done. Good judgment implies 
"knowledge of children, careful observation of the individual 
pupil, keen insight, much sympathy, large patience, and ex- 
perience." These things the teacher must think about and 
strive to attain. 



PRINCIPLES OF GOVERNMENT. 233 

* 

Second, good management requires decision, to secure 
prompt action by teacher and pupil. Directions, requests, 
and commands should be given in a clear, firm tone, with a 
decided ring, leaving no doubt as to what is meant. Require- 
ments should be reasonable and then the teacher should insist 
upon having what he has asked for. 

Thii'd, good management requires self-control. The 
teacher should keep a quiet command of himself, especially 
of his tongue; because he is exposed to frequent annoyance 
and is inclined to speak as he feels. He should govern by 
the eye rather than the tongue. If the teacher stands 
before the school where he can have direct intercourse with 
every pupil this can be done effectively. There is great 
power of restraint and of inspiration in the eye. The dull, 
backward, restless pupils, who need special attention, should 
be near the teacher. The teacher should never scold; the 
effect of speaking in an unkind spirit in loud, harsh tones is 
to irritate and antagonize the Dupil, and to diminish his 
respect for the teacher. For the same reason the teacher 
should never threaten. If he threatens he is in danger of 
finding himself embarrassed when he comes to execute the 
threat. " Evenness of control not only wins confidence, but 
it also establishes right habits." 

Fourth, good management requires tact, — the ability 
promptly to adapt one's self to his circumstances. It implies 
quick seeing and hearing, the quick transfer of attention 
from one thing to another, and the prompt execution of what 
is quickly discerned. Tact is of great value in enabling the 
teacher to discern and to check wrong tendencies before 
they reach actual misconduct. A wise superintendent said 
to his teachers, ' ' Do not let things come to an issue with 
your pupils." 

3. Use of Natural Rewards. The third means to secur- 
ing conformity and obedience is the use of natural rewards, 
those rewards which follow naturally from the actions with 
which they are associated, as for example, knowledge follows 
naturally from study. 

First, among natural rewards is the pleasure of well 



234 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

directed activity in the acquisition and use of knowledge. 
There is great satisfaction in the skilful exertion of our 
powers. By arranging the pupil's studies so as to keep body 
and mind properly employed, we gratify his love of activity, 
excite his desire of knowledge, and induce in him a liking for 
work. We are to furnish occasions which say to the pupil, 

" Do your best, your very best. 
And do it every day. " 

Second, we note the pleasure arising from merited ap- 
probation. Every person has the desire for approbation, it 
is always active, it restrains from doing that which displeases 
those whose esteem is desired, and impels to do that which 
will please them. 

Praise is one of the strong motives. Its value depends 
upon the character of the one who gives it. The degree of 
pleasure in the one who receives it is proportional to his 
esteem for those who bestow it. The approval of one's 
superiors, as of parents or teachers, is more pleasing than 
the approval of one's equals, as brothers, or sisters, or class- 
mates. 

Praise should be given for extra effort in well doing; for 
example, when the pupil has made great effort to avoid tardi- 
ness or absence, and when he has been faithful in his work 
against strong allurements to neglect it. 

Praise should be genuine, not given to secure favor, nor 
to flatter. It may be given directly, by word, or look, or 
manner; or indirectly, by giving the pupil things to do which 
show confidence in him; or by commending him to his parents 
or friends; he thereby knows that he has the approbation of 
both teacher and parent, which is doubly satisfactory. 

The approbation of schoolmates is a strong influence 
either for help or hindrance in the movement of the school. 
If the public opinion in the school in relation to any matter is 
not good, the teacher may correct it by quietly gaining a per- 
sonal influence over the leading pupils. This he can do by 
his skill in teaching, by the spirit in which he exercises 
authority, and by personal intercourse with the leaders. 



PRINCIPLES OF GOVERNMENT. 235 

" We are all excited by the love of praise, and it is the 
noblest spirit that feels it most." — Cicero. 

Third, we notice the pleasure arising from progress. We 
were made to move on continually to higher levels of self- 
activity. The ideals which once we were striving for we 
have reached — we have been that and have passed on. The 
feeling that one is making progress stimulates to greater 
effort. Every difficulty mastered gives a pleasure, and a 
consciousness of strength which makes one eager to attack 
new difficulties. This is especially true of the young. The 
business of the school is to furnish occasions for continual 
progress. ' ' Progress is the law of life, — man is not man as 
yet." He is in the making. 

Fourth, we consider the pleasure of generous emulation 
which is the ardent desire for superiority, which impels one 
to imitate, equal, or excel others who are running the same 
course. This emulation will surely come where children are 
trained together. Generous emulation is the desire to excel 
in well-doing without disparaging others. It admires and 
strives to imitate merit. It is a noble passion. Rivalry, or 
selfish emulation, is the desire to excel by repressing others. 
Emulation is a strong, natural incentive. It needs direction 
and control rather than stimulation. 

Fifth, is the pleasure arising from the approval of con- 
science. This is the best natural reward. The pupil at first 
does what he ought because he is required to do it. Then 
gradually he does it by judging for himself that he ought to 
do it. There is no pleasure equal to the pleasure of doing our 
duty. The teacher should strongly appeal to the pupil to 
choose and act according to his feeling of obligation. 

4. Keeping a Record of Conduct, Scholarship and Effort. 
The teacher should keep a record of the conduct, scholarship 
and effort of each pupil, for use as occasion requires with the 
pupil and with the parent. Monthly reports of this record 
to the parent are helpful to both parent and child. 

The group record. The record may be kept by the use of 
the letters A, B, C, D, E. A representing the upper grade of 
standing, B the middle grade, and C the lower grade, D repre- 



236 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

senting a failure, and E a bad failure. A, B and C thus repre- 
sent trhee grades of attainment and the record shows to 
which grade the pupil has attained. The record does not 
attempt to give the fine relative distinctions of the percent- 
age system of ranking. The purpose of the record is to show 
to the individual pupil (not to the class) and to his parents 
the pupil's standing in the judgment of his teachers and to 
enable them to decide whether the people is doing his best or 
not. Oftentimes the pupil thinks he is doing all right when 
he has the power to do much better, if he had the needed 
stimulus. He does not know how others rate him, by what 
standard he must be judged in the outside world, until he 
gets the outside judgment of himself. 

5. Certificates and Diplomas are expressions of the ap- 
probation of the school authorities after the good work has 
been done. They are within the reach of all deserving pupils; 
are useful to those who receive them; and should be given; 
they should be truthful, that they may help the one who re- 
ceives them. 

§IV. Obedience is Secured by Assertion of Au- 
thority. 

1. Assertion of Authority by the Teacher. The fact, 
known to the pupils, that the teacher has the right to control 
them gives power to all his requirements. When the pupil 
persists in wrong doing, the teacher has to assert his author- 
ity by saying to the pupil: "You must conform to what is 
required." 

2. Manner of Exercising Authority. The teacher, in the 
exercise of his authority, should be kind, firm, and prudent. 
The kindly spirit, the unyielding demand, the wise forecast 
of the teacher — all say to the pupil, " conformity is the wise 
thing for you. " The teacher thereby shows his pupil that he 
acts from principle, not from impulse; that he is acting un- 
der the law which he requires his pupil to obey. 

3. Fear of Punishment is a Proper Motive to Obedience. 
Whenever one is conscious of wrong doing he feels guilty; 
this is the natural penalty for the violation of authority. 
Punishment by another is the infliction of pain upon the body 



PRINCIPLES OF GOVERNMENT. 237 

or mind of a person, by the authority to which he is subject, 
and because he has violated that authority. The fear of 
punishment is a proper and necessary motive. It is implanted 
in our nature to restrain us from w^rong doing. Without the 
fear of the penalty which comes from following our natural 
impulse to excess we should ruin ourselves by self-indul- 
gence. 

4. The Purpose of Punishment is to prevent wrong doing 
first, by reforming the wrong doer. Second, punishment 
prevents wrong doing by restraining others — who are dis- 
posed to do the same wrong, — through the fear of punish- 
ment. Third, punishment prevents wrong doing by con- 
demning it. It shows that the act for which punishment is 
inflicted is condemned by rightful authority, and shows the 
pain and loss which follow from wrong doing. It is a great 
thing to make wrong doing unpopular. 

5. The Teacher Should be Free to Deal V^ith Each Pupil 
as Seems Wise, When the Offence is Committed. 

Punishment to be efl'ective must be certain to follow the 
wrong doing. Nature's penalties are always certain, hence, 
effective. The child learns not to put his hand in the fire be- 
cause he knows it will be burned. 

The punishment should be just. The recognition of its 
justice renders it effective. The pupil should be led to feel 
that he deserves the punishment before it is inflicted. 

The punishment inflicted should, like nature's penalties, 
be the natural sequence of the act, so far as possible. The 
abuse of a right or privilege should be followed by its forfeit- 
ure. The punishment for any damage to the property of 
another is at least the making good the loss or damage. The 
punishment should be suited to the character of the pupil, a 
punishment which would be effective with one pupil may 
have little or no effect upon another. It should be effectively 
administered so that its repetition will not be necessary. 

6. Proper Punishments. One of the proper punishments 
is reproof. Its effect is proportional to the offender's desire 
of approbation. Its value depends much upon the character 
of one who gives it. It should be given kindly, and usually 



238 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

in private, to save the feelings of the pupil, because it is 
more helpful when so given. Public reproof is proper for a 
public offence. 

Loss of privilege is proper, v^hen the privilege has been 
abused. 

Exclusion from companionship of schoolmates may be 
properly used for such offences as the use of bad language, 
outbreaks of temper, and disregard for the rights of others. 

Corporal punishment is any punishment inflicted upon 
the body. It is a proper punishment in case of rebellion, 
when the pupil dehberately says, "I will not obey," then 
the issue is, shall the teacher's authority end? Then he is 
justified in forcing the pupil to submit by the use of corporal 
punishment. It should not be used upon girls, a woman 
should never be strnck, nor upon pupils weak in body, they 
are not able to bear the shock. It should be inflicted when 
the teacher is calm and in such a way as not to injure the 
body. The best form of corporal punishment, when it must 
be used, is to inflict light tingling blows with a rattan, upon 
the fleshy parts of the fingers, or upon the palm of the hand. 
Such tingling blows change the pupil's circulation and give 
him a new point of view. Corporal punishment should be 
avoided, if possible. Most schools can be better conducted 
without its use. The teacher should not be forbidden to use it. 
It has to be used sometimes in family government, in civil 
government, and it comes in the violation of physical laws. 

7, Improper Punishments, Blows upon the head, violent 
shaking, pulling the hair, twisting the ear, and the like; re- 
proachful and contemptuous epithets, as dunce, dolt, block- 
head; ridicule and sarcasm; the practice of keeping after 
school to get lessons, are improper punishments; a good 
teacher will not use them, 

§V. Use of Artificial Rewards. 

1. Definition. An artificial reward is a reward given by 
the teacher, or others, which does not follow naturally from 
the action with which it is associated, 

2, Ranking Pupils. The artificial reward most commonly 



PRINCIPLES OF GOVERNMENT. 239 

used is the the ranking of pupils. This is usually done by 
keeping a record in per cent, of recitations and deport- 
ment, and giving the pupil his rank according to his record. 
This ranking is a strong incentive to some, but it takes too 
much time and hinders class work, and it is not possible to 
make a just ranking in definite per cent, consequently some 
pupils will be dissatisfied. In a graduating class in a high 
school the rank of four pupils was respectively as follows: 
96.2 per cent., 95.9 per cent., 95.3 per cent., and 95 per cent. 
Here was a distinction without a difference. " Ranking is 
neither necessary nor desirable. 

3. Prizes. A prize is an artificial reward offered to 
many which only one can obtain. A prize rewards brilliancy 
rather than industry, is limited to a very few in its action, 
and is extremely difficult to award justly. These objections, 
which cannot be overcome, are sufficient to exclude prizes 
from school incentives. 

4. Pecuniary Rewards. The offering of pecuniary ar- 
tificial rewards has in it too much of the element of hiring 
pupils to do their work, which ought to be done from higher 
motives. It is putting school on a commercial basis instead 
of using it for perfecting of character. 

5. Natural Rewards Sufficient. Natural rewards are 
sufficient to secure good school work, are helpful in their 
effect upon the character of the pupil, therefore they should 
always be used rather than artificial rewards. 

§VI. Co-ordinate Control. 

1. Concurrent Jurisdiction. The teacher has full author- 
ity over bis pupils in the schoolroom and on the school prem- 
ises. The teacher and the parent have concurrent jurisdic- 
tion over the pupil from the time he leaves home until he 
reaches school, and from the time he leaves school until he 
reaches home. The teacher should exert himself to secure 
the good behavior of the pupil while he is on the way to and 
from school, and should co-operate with the parents and the 
public authorities in this matter. He should be careful how 
he administers punishment for offences on the way, because 



240 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

his authority may be called in question. When the pupil vio- 
late one of the by-laws of the town, or the city ordinances, 
on their way to and from school, as in snow-balling in the 
street, the teacher should show the pupils the nature of their 
offence, and what they ought to do; and if they persist in 
this wrong-doing, he may call in the aid of the officers of the 
law for correction. 

2. Correction of Offences. The correction of offences 
calls for wisdom and discretion. Communication is not an 
offence in itself, but is so when it is done out of time and 
place. It must be corrected because it is contrary to good 
discipline, is a bad habit showing want of self-control, and it 
disturbs the school. The teacher should make these facts 
apparent to the pupil, and insist upon his refraining from 
improper communication. 

Coming late to any duty is a bad habit. In school it is 
a loss of time, of discipline, knowledge, and school order. It 
should not be allowed unless it is absolutely necessary. The 
cause of tardiness by the pupil may be in the school. The 
teacher may be dilatory in the conduct of the school. The 
remedy for this is obvious. The cause may be in the pupil; 
if so, the teacher must work with him for its correction. 
The cause may be in the parent; if it is, the teacher must 
seek the co-operation of the parent. We should seek for its 
removal, by showing the evil of the practice and by using 
motives to induce punctuality. 

Regular attendance by every pupil is necessary to the 
accomplishment of the purpose of the school. The teacher 
should know why his pupil is absent, and use every means in 
his power to secure regular attendance. These means are 
his own personal effort with pupils and parents, to show 
them the evils of absence and to secure their co-operation in 
preventing it. , and, if need be. the co-operation of the school 
committee and truant officer. 

3. Responsibility and Regularity. It has been said that 
obedience and truthfulness are twin virtues. There is a pair 
of twin virtues, the other one of the pair is responsibility and 
regularity. A sense of responsibility for the right use of 



PRINCIPLES OF GOVERNMENT. 241 

health, strength, means, time, opportunity, and all our pow- 
ers is essential to the building of a strong character. This 
feeling finds expression in having a time for everything and 
everything in its time in the daily routine of life. Regular- 
ity in eating, in sleeping, in physical exercise, in all our work, 
in all our recreation is conducive to the greatest economy of 
health, strength, and power, and to the efficient life. Irreg- 
ularity produces the opposite effects. The sense of respon- 
sibihty is essential, regularity is extremely important. It is 
not a light thing to break in upon regularity. Home and 
school should heartily co-operate in cultivating the feeling of 
responsibihty and the habit of regularity in every pupil. 



CHAPTER XXIV. 
OBSERVATION OF PARENTAL TEACHING. 

Home is the chief source of human virtue. — Charming. 
Men are what their mothers made them. — Emerson. 

§1. In the Home of Educated Parents. 

1. Ideals of Life and Teaching, It is essential that 
teachers should observe teaching in the best homes and 
schools, wherein the aim, the motive, the method and the 
product of teaching are exemplified. We get our ideals of 
life and teaching from life in the concrete as we have known 
it in our own experience. Our ideals must come from the 
best homes, the best schools, and the best human beings. 

2. The Mother. (1) The mother is the first and the most 
influential teacher of the child, with the father by her side 
wisely co-operating. She lives in her child, her one little 
pupil who is her companion from the time he wakes in the 
morning until he goes to sleep with her good-night kiss. Her 
first care is to see that his physical needs are all properly 
met, that he is suitably clothed," is supplied with pure air, 
kept clean, has his food at regular intervals, and has all the 
exercise and sleep he needs. 

(2) She watches with intense interest every manifesta- 
tion of the unfolding soul while he is struggling to get the 
use of his hands, eyes, and ears; to hold up his head, to 
stand alone, and to walk; to recognize and imitate the action 
of the different members of the family. She patiently directs 
his activity as he begins to talk, to think about things, and 
to investigate everything within his reach. She surrounds 
him with an atmosphere that makes him happy. 



OBSERVATION OF PARENTAL TEACHING. 243 

(3) She supplies him with objects of interest, directs 
his efforts in dealing with the objects, watches the trend of 
his mind, lets him alone when he is well employed, answers 
his numerous questions, aids him in extending his vocabulary 
as he discovers ideas, and kindles his imagination by whole- 
some stories. She is mindful of his emotional activity, 
soothes him when he is troubled, rejoices with him in his 
expressions of joy, and calmly controls him in his out-bursts 
of passion. 

(4) She cultivates his will by putting upon him the re- 
sponsibility of choosing, shows him the two boys within who 
contend for the mastery of him, helps him to choose the 
higher good instead of the lower, to do the right and to re- 
frain from doing the wrong, to be obedient, courteous, and 
reverent. 

(5) By this living process, she leads him steadily on in 
the unfolding of his young life. The maternal teaching is 
the golden thread running through the web of the child's 
life. 

" A little child today sits on my knee, 

And questions me of many things that be. 

A question and its answer makes for him 

A something definite of what was dim. 

" This little child, long slipped from off my knee, 
In life's tomorrow, facing things that be — 
Will his ideals be clear or sadly dim — 

Because of how, today, I answer him ? 

" This little child here sitting on my knee 

Is greatest and most real of things that be ; 
My faith in truth and goodness is not dim — 
I'll give my best and truest unto him." 

— Juniata Stafford. 

3. The Home. (1) The home is made attractive to the 
children. Each one has his place as an individual in the fam- 
ily. The nursery is one of the sunny rooms of the house, 
decorated with artistic pictures and beautiful flowers. The 
mother at her work table here, is the companion and teacher 
of her children. She talks with them, joins in their play. 



244 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

teaches them many simple lessons from the objects and 
pictures about them, and, by her own example, trains them 
to use and not abuse their property, to put their things in 
order when not in use, and to be mindful of each other. 

(2) The sitting room is the place for social intercourse 
of the family. The mother plays and sings to the children, 
and teaches them to sing and play. The father joins in the 
singing and in the social games. Visitors are received and 
the children learn how to meet them in the proper way. 

(3) In the library, each child has his own books and his 
desk at which he studies and writes. A case is provided in 
which the children arrange the minerals, coins, seeds, and 
rare products which they are encouraged to select. 

(4) The chambers of the children are made bright and 
cheery by attractive furniture and pictures. The children 
are required to have a place for everything and everything 
in its place. Here, at bed-time, the mother quietly talks 
with the children, and reads to them; they offer their prayer 
to their Heavenly Father, and lie down to peaceful sleep. 

(5) Out-of-doors they have the sand-bed, in which the 
younger children mold and build after their own original de- 
signs; they have a garden, in which each has his plot of 
ground, where he plants seeds and follows the growth of the 
plant from seed to seed again. They have pet animals whose 
habits they study, which they play with and care for, thus 
making them thoughtful and humane. 

§ II. In the Natural Environment. 

1. Sympathy With Nature. The child is brought into 
sympathy with nature. The mother takes him to the fields 
and shows him nature at work, dotting the green grass with 
the golden blossoms of the dandelion, changing these to the 
fluffy spheres, and sending their winged seeds everywhere. 
She leads him to listen to the busy hum of the bees in the 
blossoming trees, and to the laughing melody of the bobolink. 

2. Out-of-Door Life. The little fellow makes a fruitless 
chase for the bright colored butterfly. Then the mother 
takes him to a flower, where he sees the butterfly unfolding 



OBSERVATION OF PARENTAL TEACHING. 245 

his long proboscis and running it into the flower cup to sip 
the honey. Again, the boy spies a caterpillar crawling upon 
the ground, which he fearlessly picks up and drops into his 
mother's hand. She leads him to observe its beautiful colors 
and graceful movements, finds the food upon which the 
caterpillar feeds, and takes him home. The child watches 
him eat and go into his cocoon, and after patient waiting 
sees a perfect butterfly come forth. He remembers these 
lessons, and his eyes and ears are open to what nature has to 
say to him. 

3. "Wind and Weather. The father joins in this teach- 
ing. He goes forth with the child from time to time, and 
shows him nature at work in the air, the water, and the 
earth. He leads him to observe how the wind makes the 
trees sway, the leaves and dust fly about, and the clouds scud 
across the sky; to observe from which direction the warm 
winds and the cold winds come, which wind brings the storm, 
and which the fair weather. He leads him to observe that 
the sunshine makes the plants grow, and the cool evening 
gives them the dew to drink; that the cool morning forms 
the fog over the water and moist lands, and the warm sun 
sends it up into the cooler air above to make the clouds, 
which are borne along by the winds, and come down in the 
raindrops to water the dry earth. He teaches him that the 
cold of winter freezes the vapor in the air, and trims the 
brown grass, the trees, and the buildings with the sparkling 
frost; that the cold air above the earth freezes the clouds 
into the crystal snow flakes, which come sailing down so 
gracefully to carpet the earth and keep it warm. 

4. Mineral Substances. He shows him that the freezing 
water in the cracks of the rocks breaks them in pieces and 
they are crumbled into fine bits, which the streams of water 
carry into the lower places, to make the soil in which the 
plants grow. He teaches him to distinguish the quartz, feld- 
spar, mica, jasper, and other minerals, and to gather them 
for his collection. He teaches him the qualities of the min- 
erals and their uses, and that they form the granite, gneiss, 
sandstone, and other rocks, which are used for constructing 



246 ^RE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

walls, buildings, bridges, and monuments. 

5. Plant Life. The father teaches the child the action 
of plant life. They go to the cherry-tree and while they eat 
the luscious cherries • under the tree, the father directs the 
attention of the child to the large tree laden with fruit, and 
then to the little cherry-tree on the ground just coming from 
the cherry-stone, sending its rootlets downward, and its tiny 
stem upward, with two little leaves at the top. The father 
asks, Where do we get the cherries? The child answers, 
From the cherry-tree. Where does the cherry-tree come 
from? From the cherry-stone. Then the child is silent for 
a little, but soon he asks eagerly. Where did the first cherry- 
tree come from? God made it. He makes all cherry-trees 
grow. Then comes quickly the question. Does God make all 
kinds of trees grow? Children think behind the words. 

6. Animal Life. Lessons in the action of animal life are 
taught. The father goes with the child to the pond in the 
park, and points out to him the rope of slime on the water's 
edge, holding the little black eggs of the toad, and shows 
him the tiny tadpoles just from the egg, wriggling in the 
water. The child watches the tadpole, with his round body 
and long tail, swimming in the water, and breathing by gills. 
Then he sees him with his legs growing from his body, and 
the tail much shortened. Later the child finds that the tad- 
pole has become a bright little toad, hopping along the bank 
in the air, and breathing by lungs; a curious little creature, 
with bright eyes, a big throat and no tail. The child remem- 
bers these lessons and is on the alert to question nature along 
the various lines of her activity. 

§in. The Human Environment. 

1. Plays and Companions. The thoughtful parent con- 
stantly takes care to see that the plays, games, and places of 
resort of his child are wholesome in their effects, and that his 
associates, companions, playmates, and the persons with 
whom he mingles shall be those whose character, habits, 
manners, language, and conduct are such as to exert a help- 
ful influence upon the life of the child, who is so quick to re- 



OBSERVATION OF PARENTAL TEACHING. 247 

spond and to imitate without reflection the bad as well as the 
good. The true parent is watchful of the effects of all these 
influences that he may lead the child to choose the true and 
the good and to shun the false and evil. The child needs con- 
stant help in this discrimination and choice until he is able to 
judge wisely for himself. 

2. Human Industries. The child goes out into the world 
of human industry. The parents encourage him to use every 
opportunity to become acquainted with the occupations of 
men. 

(1) He observes the different kinds of manual labor in 
the home, the gardens, and the fields. 

(2) He learns about mechanical pursuits by watching 
the workers upon stone, wood, and metals — the stone cutter 
and mason; the carpenter, cabinet worker, and carriage 
builder; the blacksmith, tinsmith, the coppersmith, the 
pipers, and electricians. 

(3) He learns about the making of the numerous arti- 
cles used in the home, on the person and in the various occu- 
pations, by observing the process of their manufacture. 

(4) He learns about the construction of buildings, mon- 
uments, roads, bridges, and vessels by observing the builders 
as they construct them. 

(5) He learns about trade and commerce by observing 
the movements of those engaged in these pursuits. 

(6) The child is provided with tools and materials, and 
learns to use them in the construction of various articles 
within his power to produce. 

(7) This observation of the various lines of industry 
gives the child a wholesome respect for labor, and for the 
artisan ; gives him ideas of things and processes, which are 
the basis for thought and expression. 

(8) The habit of observation thus formed in early Hfe is 
an invaluable element in all subsequent living; and more val- 
able even than this habit are the emotions of pleasure awak- 
ened by such observation, which kindle the inspiration to 
better living. 

3. The Realm of Reading. The child is led into the 



248 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

realm of literature and history. Great pains is taken by the 
parents to incite in the children a love of poetry, biography, 
history, and other good reading. They read to them myths, 
stories, poems, interesting biographies, and histories. As 
soon as the children can read, they are kept well supplied 
with wholesome and interesting reading. Thus they acquire 
the taste for good reading. 

4. The Realm of Fine Art. The children are taught to 
read pictures, and are supplied with pictures illustrating the 
life of the world; with those illustrating fine art in painting, 
sculpture, and architecture, and with photographs of the pic- 
tures of the masters, which illustrate the history of art. 
They are thus led to observe the works of art, and love for 
the fine arts is awakened. These studies make home attrac- 
tive, and the children spend their evenings in the home, 
rather than roaming the streets. The child must be wedded 
to the home. The habit of work must be formed early and 
be continually strengthened. 

§IV. In the Spiritual Environment. 

1. The Loving Father of All is Remembered. (1) His 
creative and sustaining power is recognized in nature and in 
the human life of every day of the week, but especially on 
Sundays, " the day devoted to home, rest, and God." It is 
made the happiest day of the week for the children. The 
best playthings, best books, and best clothes are kept for 
Sunday. 

(2) Prominent among the objects of thought for the 
day is the life of Jesus— the greatest life in the history of the 
world. The mother tells the children the story of his birth, 
of how he lived, and grew in favor with God and man. She 
reads with them the pictures of the babe and his mother, of 
the shepherds, of the wise men, and of the boy questioning 
with the doctors at Jerusalem. They learn what he did and 
said when he became a man. Other bible stories are read 
and their illustrations. 

(3) The father talks and reads with the children, the 
family sing together, attend public worship, and go out to 



OBSERVATION OF PARENTAL TEACHING. ■ 249 

observe God in nature together. The day is restful, and 
attractive, and its teaching is not to be forgotten. "It is 
given up to loving thoughts of God, to a loving rest from 
one's own work and pleasure, and to a loving part in the 
worship of God." A living faith in the Father of nature and 
man is awakened, which ever after strengthens the spiritual 
life of the man. 

2. The Vital Element of Home Teaching, Love is the 
vital element of home teaching. A real home is pervaded by 
a correct view of human life and its relations, and by an at- 
mosphere of love. Every true home, however humble, is 
dominated by this spirit. When parents really live with 
their children, and make home the most attractive place in 
the world, they hold the confidence and love of the children, 
teach them how to live, how to make a true home when they 
shall reach maturity, and thus they perpetuate rational liv- 
ing. An atmosphere of love is as essential to the child as 
sunshine is to the plant. 

' ' Now God be thanked for years enwrought with love, 
that softens yet. " — F. B. Broiuning. 

3, Fruit of Parental Teaching. As an illustration of the 
fruit of parental teaching, I quote the following from Suc- 
cess: 

Rev. Dr. Lorimer of Boston tells this story of a distin- 
guished man who was introduced to a great pubHc meeting 
as a "self-made man." Instead of being gratified by the 
tribute, it seemed to throw him for a few moments into a 
brown study. Afterwards they asked him the reason for the 
way in which he received the announcement. 

" Well," said he, "it set me to thinking that I was not a 
self-made man." 

"Why," they replied, " did you not begin to work in a 
store when you were ten or twelve?" 

' * Yes, " said he, ' ' but it was because my mother thought 
I ought early to have the educating touch of business." 

" But then, " they urged, " you were always such a great 
reader, devouring books when a boy." 

"Yes," he repHed, "but it was because my mother led 



250 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

me to do it, and at her knee she had me give an account of 
the book after I had read it. I don't know about being a 
self-made man. I think my mother had a great deal to do 
with it." 

"But then," they urged again, "your integrity was 
your own." 

"Well, I don't know about that. One day a barrel of 
apples had come to me to sell out by the peck; and after the 
manner of some storekeepers, I put the speckled ones at the 
bottom and the best ones at the top. My mother called and 
asked what I was doing; I told her, and she said, 'Tom, if 
you do that you will be a cheat. ' And I did not do it. I 
think my mother had to do with my integrity. And, on the 
whole, I doubt whether I am a self-made man. I think my 
mother had something to do with making me anything I am 
of character or usefulness." 

" Happy," said Dr. Lorimer, " the boy who had such a 
mother; happy the mother who had a boy so appreciative of 
his mother's formative influence." 

' * There is more of his mother in a man than anybody 
thinks. ' ' — Anonymous. 



CHAPTER XXV. 
OBSERVATION IN THE KINDERGARTEN. 

" Blessed be the hand that prepares a pleasure for a child." 

— Douglas Jerold. 

§ I. The Kindergarten the Portal of School Life. 

1. The Motherly Spirit. The well qualified kindergar- 
tener teaches her pupils in the motherly spirit. She makes 
the children's garden an annex of the home. She meets the 
children with a cordial sympathy, is kind but firm, and 
guides them wisely in all the outburst, or shyness of their 
young life. The kindergartener takes special care to make 
the schoolroom attractive to the little ones, by the skilful dis- 
position of natural objects, pictures, and the children's work 
about the room, and by making everything in the room con- 
tribute to their happiness. 

2. A Loving Welcome. The children have a loving wel- 
come as Jthey come to the schoolroom in the morning. The 
teacher reverently directs their thought to the loving care of 
our heavenly Father, as they begin the day together. They 
offer their morning prayer and sing their songs with a sweet 
sincerity. Then come the morning talks about objects which 
are interesting to the children. The purpose of these talks is 
to teach the children to see and hear definitely, to think of 
what they see and hear, and to make simple and direct ex- 
pression of their thought. The teacher is guided by the 
underlying principle of every form of education, to teach the 
children first to observe, then to think, then to make good 
verbal expression. In the "mother talks" the children are 
led to think of mother, and home, and family. 

3. Children Led to See Nature. The teacher leads the 



252 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

children to see nature working in the plants in the window 
garden, in the flowers, in the field, in the seeds and fruits of 
the season, in the birds, the squirrels, the rabbits, and the 
domestic animals; to express clearly what they perceive, to 
appreciate these beautiful objects, to think of their life, to 
think of the goodness of our heavenly Father in giving us all 
these things. 

4. Trades and Occupations. The children are led by 
talks and pictures to think of the various trades and occupa- 
tions carried on in the community around them, and to tell 
what they have seen and heard about these occupations. 
They are thus brought into sympathy with the industrial life 
about them, and to think of what is being done for them in 
supplying their food, clothing, homes, and the privileges of 
the social life which they enjoy. The sand garden is one of 
the most attractive occupations for the children in which 
they are free to work out their own ideals in the most attrac- 
tive way, giving ample scope to their imagination and to the 
skilful use of their hands. 

5. Use of the Gifts. Through the right use of the gifts, 
the children are led to acquire useful ideas of forms, number, 
color, size, and movement, derived from these simple definite 
objects. The teacher calls into exercise the constructive 
ability and taste of the children in having them build various 
forms with the geometric blocks, in stick laying, in paper 
work, in embroidery weaving, and in modelling in clay. In 
all these, the children find application of the primary ideas 
they have acquired from natural objects and geometric forms, 
become conscious of their power to use things for the realiza- 
tion of their ideals, and to learn to direct their own activity 
to some definite end. 

6. Plays and Games. The teacher conducts the plays 
and games of the children in which they " ascend from the 
world of things to the world of self-activity, from the mate- 
rial and the earthly to the spiritual." Each one finds that he 
is a part of a larger social whole, and that he must respect 
the rights, feelings, and individuality of his fellows; and he 



OBSERVATION IN THE KINDERGARTEN. 253 

finds delight in the enlargement of himself in this wider field 
of spiritual activity. 

7. Imagination Cultivated. The imagination of the chil- 
dren is cultivated by telling them v^holesome and interesting 
stories; by having them study beautiful pictures; by reading to 
them stories of the imagination, and by having them tell 
imaginative stories. The teacher is careful to adapt these 
lessons to their needs, to stimulate the slow imagination, and 
to control that which is too active. 

8. The Children's Garden. The conversations, occupations, 
plays, games, and studies are so mingled, and the activities 
of the children are directed with such sympathetic skill, that 
they feel they are at play with their companions. It is the 
children's garden, in which they are developed by their own 
exertion; their interest comes from their own self-expression, 
and they are acting with their fellows with good will towards 
every one. They are taught to see, to hear, to talk, to use 
their power to construct, to obey, to be courteous, and to 
control self. The objects of thought in all exercises are pre- 
sented in such a way as to stimulate the thought, the heart, 
and the conscience to healthful activity. 

9. Supplements the Home. The wisely conducted kin- 
dergarten fitly supplements the home, and is "the gate 
beautiful " to the child's entrance upon school life. The kin- 
dergarten is the most important grade in the school. Its 
pupils are tender and susceptible as plants in the greenhouse. 
They are starting the habits of a lifetime. This school calls 
for the wisest and most skilful teacher. 



CHAPTER XXVI. 
OBSERVATION IN THE FOUR PRIMARY GRADES. 

"Childhood shows the man, as morning shows the day." — Milton. 

§1. The Spirit of the Teaching. 

1. Principles and Method Continuous. There is no break 
between the kindergarten and the primary grades which fol- 
low it. The principles and the method of the teaching 
employed in the kindergarten are continued in these grades. 
The course in the grades is continuous, adapted to the needs 
of the children as they move forward. Each child goes on as 
fast and as far as he is able to go. 

2. The Schoolroom is Made Attractive. The teacher 
beautifies the room by a few choice pictures tastefully hung 
upon the walls, and by " a selection of potted plants having 
a variety of leaf and flower, as well as different habits of 
growth, showing nature's manifold ways in doing her beauti- 
ful work. ' ' She encourages the children to bring collections 
of both wild and cultivated flowers and foliage, throughout 
the season, which she arranges in artistic ways about the 
room. The pupils assist in the care of the bouquets and re- 
gard them as part of the regular furnishings of the room. 

3. Sympathy for Nature Cultivated. (1) Lists of the 
flowers collected are placed on the board to make their names 
familiar. They may be written with different colored crayons, 
to suggest the colors of the flowers, as the eye runs over the 
names. 

(2) In the morning talks, the pupils tell where they 
found the flowers growing, as a means to calling their atten- 
tion to their natural surroundings, and as a stimulus to the 
search for flowers at their homes. 



OBSERVATION IN THE FOUR PRIMARY GRADES. 255 

(3) Attention is called to the value of flowers in beauti- 
fying the roadways, the fields, and the parks, so that the 
eyes will notice such things with a new interest, and new 
feeling will stir the heart. The teacher knows that these 
beautiful surroundings directly lead to that sympathy for 
natural objects, which is the foundation for all true nature 
study; that all these things keep the eyes on the watch, and 
the thought busy on plant life. 

§11. The Lines of Activity. 

Self- Activity Cultivated. The children are led on in: (1) 
seeing, hearing, talking; (2) in reading, writing, numbering; 
(3) in forming, drawing, coloring; (4) in singing, physical 
training, and good behavior — as so many modes of self-ac- 
tivity in daily life. All these lines of activity involve the 
active use of the sense organs, especially of the eyes, the 
ears, and the hands. Each mode is emphasized according to 
the needs of the pupil's development. 

2. Nature and Human Life Studied. The teacher gives 
nature and human life the first place in the thoughts of her 
pupils as the source of primary ideas and of rational enjoy- 
ment. She teaches the elements of climate and the working 
of nature in minerals, plants, and animals. 

3. "Stepping Stones" to Literature. She reads to her 
pupils the simple story, the myth, the beautiful poem, the 
interesting biography, the graphic history, and in this way 
excites their desire to read. She supplies them with whole- 
some and interesting reading along these lines, and thus 
strengthens the love for good reading, and makes these les- 
sons " stepping stones " to literature. 

4. "Stepping Stones" to Pictorial Art. She teaches the 
children to read pictures in their reading books, and photo- 
graphs of the masters, which are interesting to them, and, 
grading the pictures to their capacity, forms a series of studies 
which become " stepping stones " to the study of pictorial 
art. 

5. Self-Expression Cultivated. The constant aim of the 
teacher is to make each mode of activity the occasion of self- 



256 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

expression by the pupil, thus awakening a genuine interest 
in his work. All these modes of self-activity in the pupil are 
in the concrete form, so as to call both mind and body into 
action. 

§111. Illustration of Teaching. 

1. Teaching How to Study Birds. (1) Observation of 
birds and a record. The children make a list of the birds as 
they are seen, learn where they come from, notice their 
color, and what they do in their movements in getting their 
food and building their nests. 

(2) A stuffed bird is used for the more careful examin- 
ation of the parts, and the teacher directs the pupil's thought 
by questions. What is the color of the feathers on the head, 
breast, back, wings, and tail? Which parts are not covered 
with feathers? Why are the feathers not needed on these 
parts? What kind of feathers on the wings and tail? How 
do they help the bird to fly? Sketch a quill feather. How 
many toes in front? behind? What kind of claws? For 
what does he use them? What kind of a bill? How does he 
use it? Why is it so hard and pointed? Has he any ears? 
How many teeth has he? Sketch the head and bill. Of what 
use is the bird? What should we do if there were no birds? 
How should we treat the birds? 

(3) Narration and description and reading. Another 
day the lesson is reviewed orally. The children sketch the 
bird and its parts. They write simple sentences, narrative, 
and descriptive, about the bird. The narrative tells about 
the coming of the bird, what he does and where he lives. 
The description tells of the bird, as he is at any time. The 
children learn songs and poems, and read about birds. 

(4) The order of the teaching in these lessons is, the 
observation of the life of the bird; the study of the parts of 
the bird and their uses; the thought of the value of the bird; 
the oral expression of the thoughts; the pictorial representa- 
tion of the object and its parts; the written expression of the 
knowledge, narrative, and descriptive; and acquiring infor- 
mation by reading. 



OBSERVATION IN THE FOUR PRIMARY GRADES. 257 

(5) The educational value of the teaching is apparent. 
Intellectually, the pupil is led to accurate, systematic obser- 
vation of birds, which not only gives definite knowledge of 
the birds studied, but, what is of far greater value, the ten- 
dency to further observation and knowledge. He sees birds 
as he never saw them before. He knows how to study them. 
Emotionally, this study has awakened in the pupil a feeling 
of great pleasure. He has an interest in birds that he never 
felt before, and he will continue to study them. Volitionally, 
this study has given the pupil an appreciation of the life of a 
bird, which moves him to treat birds humanely. 

§IV. Secret of Holding Attention. 

1. Tactful Adaptation. The primary teacher has the 
power of easily holding her pupils to the doing of the work 
she would have them perform. She is systematic, energetic, 
tactful, patient, and does not allow herself to be irritated by 
the waywardness of her pupils. As soon as their interest 
begins to wane, she quietly turns them into another line of 
activity for a minute or two, — to the singing of a stanza, the 
repetition of a beautiful bit of poetry, relation of a pertinent 
incident, a little physical exercise, or to some other device; — ■ 
and then as promptly resumes the work again. By this skil- 
ful insertion of brief intervals of relief, she pleasantly holds 
attention to the work to its close, and avoids the irritation 
which comes from frequent calls to attention. 

2. Sympathetic, Flexible Method. Her sympathetic skill, 
and the flexibility of her method in adapting her require- 
ments to the varying needs of the pupils, both in the class 
exercise and in the general management of the school, make 
the school move easily, reduce to a minimum the wear of 
spirit in both teacher and pupil, make the work effective, and 
the remembrance of it satisfactory. She is able to say, 
with Dickens: 



258 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

" My frown is sufficient correction 

My love is the law of the school. 
"The twig is so easily bended 

I have banished the rule and the rod. 
" I have taught them the goodness of knowledge, 

They have taught me the goodness of God. 
" I know now how Jesus could liken 

The kingdom of God to a child. ' ' 

§V. Sympathetic Teaching. 

1. Distinctive Features. We notice the distinctive feat- 
ures of this teaching thus far considered. The mother, the 
kindergartener, and the primary teacher are the sympathetic 
guides of children through infancy and childhood. These 
teachers are in hearty sympathy with their pupils. The self- 
activity of the pupils is stimulated by their relation to the 
natural object and the loving teacher. The thought of the 
pupils is directed along lines which awaken and appreciate in- 
terest in the object, that moves the teacher and the pupil 
naturally to work happily together. The result is that the 
pupils are acquiring useful elementary knowledge; increasing 
their power to perceive, think, and express; learning self- 
control; and how to treat others rightly. They are obeying 
three great laws of self-activity, harmony, and benevolence. 



CHAPTER XXVII. 
OBSERVATION IN THE FIVE GRAMMAR GRADES. 

"Unless a tree has borne blossoms in the spring, you will vainly 
look for fruit on it in the autumn." — Hare. 

§1. The Teacher In Touch with His Pupils. 

1. Special Study of Pupils. As the pupil advances in 
age, each year brings him into different bodily and mental 
condition, with different likes and dislikes, and different 
notions of his life. The teacher needs to make a special 
study of the pupil in each stage of his development, that he 
may adapt his teaching and training to the needs of the 
pupil. This study is the first thing for the teacher to do, for 
to be out of touch with his pupils is to fail in all his work. 

2. Teacher's Manner. If the teacher meets his pupils 
with a cheerful, animated, self-possessed, enthusiastic, de- 
cided manner and a sincere sympathy, he will draw them to 
himself, and hold their respect and confidence. 

§11. Lines of Activity. 

1. Self-activity Widened and Deepened. All the Hnes of 
activity in the preceding grades are continued and widened 
and deepened as the power of the pupil increases. Nature 
and human life are kept at the front in all the teaching, as a 
means to more extended observation, thought, and expres- 
sion, and to lead the pupil into a larger life as his years move 
on. Increasing attention is given to the relations of objects; 
to the action of forces; to manual arts; to constructive geom- 
etry and mensuration; to plant culture; to why and how 
things are as they are; to the arrangement of the thoughts 
of the lessons; to the formal expression of thought; to prin- 



260 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

ciples, processes, definition, division, and to language; art; 
history; and literature. There is a gradual advance along 
all these lines as the pupil's mind unfolds. 

§111. Illustrations of Teaching. 

1. Changes in the Form of Water and Their Effects: 

(1) Evaporation. "Illustrations. Water standing over 
night or during the day in a saucer. A wet cloth hanging in 
the sun. What change is observed? What becomes of the 
v^ater? Think of other similar illustrations. The invisible 
water in the air is called vapor, and the change is evapora- 
tion. What becomes of water after a shower? (It runs off, 
soaks in, evaporates.) Of water in ponds? in the ocean? of 
dew? of frost? Illustrations. Water on the slate in direct 
sunlight and out of it; a wet cloth in the wind and out of it. 
Which dries the sooner in each case? Why should it? (Heat 
and wind increase evaporation.) Apply to dew and frost, 
snow and ice, wet ground, and other illustrations. Why 
does evaporating ice cool a room or ice chest? 

"Illustrations. Fresh leaves standing under a tumbler 
during the day or night. What collects on the inside of the 
tumbler? Think whence it comes, and the value to the plant. 
Why do we water plants? Illustrations. Water boiling in a 
tin cup. What appearance just above the water? a little 
further above the water? some distance above? What 
changes in the water are taking place? Illustrations. Per- 
spiration. What is going on? of what value to man? Breathe 
on a cool, glass surface. Whence comes the moisture? Com- 
bine, and think of all places from which vapor gets into the 
air. Written work is given from a series of topics. 

(2) Condensation. "Illustrations. Tumbler with ice 
in it standing in a warm room. What collects on the outside? 
Where does the moisture come from? Where do the moisture 
and frost on the window, the dew and frost on the grass 
come from? Think of the small particles of vapor collecting 
into drops, (condensing). Does dew or frost collect on 
stones? on iron? 

"Illustrations, The water boiling in the tin cup, trace 



OBSERVATION IN THE FIVE GRAMMAR GRADES. 261 

the changes; (vapor next the water is 'steam,' condenses in 
the cooler air into 'steam fog,' soon changes to vapor again.) 
Observe the fog some morning; why is it over low places? 
What is the effect of the sun or wind? Observe the cloud in 
the upper air; how does the water get there? What con- 
denses it? when more condenses than the air will hold what 
does it do? In what condition is the ground in the winter for 
receiving rain? Where does the water appear again? Observe 
frost or snow as crystals of water; notice the temperature, 
(32° or lower) of water condensed into a solid; watch for the 
first snow to find the shape of the crystals, and sketch them. 
Observe ice crystals packed together in a mass. Ice is lighter 
than water, rises to the top; of what benefit is this fact? 

"Illustrations Fill a bottle with water, cork it and 
place in a mixture of salt and ice in a tin can; the bottle 
breaks. Ice crystals take more room than the same amount 
of water. Call for other illustrations: e. g. bursting of a 
water pipe, ice splitting open cracks in the rocks. What is 
the difference between hail and snow? (Drops of water 
frozen or hail, fine drops of mist frozen or snow. ) Think of 
the value of snow in winter." Written work follows. 

3. Application. " As an application of these exercises, 
the daily weather chart is kept for forenoon and afternoon of 
the school day. The pupils make blank forms for each week, 
and an enlarged record is placed on the blackboard. This 
work is done for a month at a time, that the deductions may 
be general. Observations are assigned to different children 
from day to day, and also for the days of the week when the 
school is not in session. The children are interested in the 
weather predictions for the day, and comparisons are made 
with their records. Many simple devices are used to increase 
the interest in the subject, such as the use of color, weather 
signals, and newspaper clippings. The same hours each day 
are selected for observations." 

(4) The order of the teaching in these lessons is the 
definite observation of the phenomena; thinking how the 
changes are produced ; tliinking of the effects and value of 
the changes; expressing the facts in proper terms; having 



262 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

written exercises upon the topics, and making a systematic 
record of observations. The purpose of the teaching is to 
acquire knowledge of the facts observed and their cause; to 
interest the pupils in the study of natural phenomena; to 
teach them to observe definitely the changes going on about 
them; to inquire for the cause of these changes, and to con- 
sider how they affect the life of the world. 

2. The Process of Addition. (1) Direction and instruc- 
tive questioning. The pupils have had practice in adding 
single columns, and in writing numbers of four places. The 
class is at the board, and the teacher directs their work in 
taking the steps of the process. Write 473, directly under 
this write 579, 367, 745, 984, 613, and draw a line under the 
last number expressed. The pupils are led by questioning to 
notice the different orders of units, then to take, to state, to 
write, each step of the process. 

The steps are as follows: Write the number of units of 
the same order in the same column, and draw a line beneath. 
Add the units of the lowest order from the foot of the col- 
umn upward, and from the top downward, and repeat until 
the results agree. Write the units of the sum under the col- 
umn added, and hold the tens of the sum for the next 
addition. Add the tens of the preceding sum with the units 
of the next order, verify the adding, and write the units 
of the sum under the column added. Add the tens of the 
preceding sum with the units of the highest order, verify, 
write the units of the sum under the column added, and 
the tens of the sum at the left. The pupils state the whole 
process. They repeat and state the process upon examples, 
until it can be performed and stated accurately without hes- 
itation. 

(2) Training in consecutive thinking. In this teaching 
the pupil is trained to think the series of thoughts in a pro- 
cess, to verifying his thinking, to state his thoughts 
accurately, orally, and in writing, and to repeat the process 
until it becomes a permanent tendency of his mind. Under 
the definite direction and interest of the teacher, there is no 
waste of time or energy; there is the pleasure of well-directed 



OBSERVATION IN THE FIVE GRAMMAR GRADES. 263 

activity, and the stimulus to continuity and exactness of 
thought and statement, and to self-rehance and truthful 
dealing. 

3. The Structure of Sentences. (1) Training in construc- 
tive thinking. The object of thought in the lesson is the 
structure of the sentence and its parts. The pupils have 
learned what a sentence is and its essential parts. They 
are at the board, and the teacher directs their thinking. 
They write the illustrations, and the definitions which they 
derive from them by their own thinking. 

A simple sentence. The kinds of sentence according to 
structure. Write, "The boy has gone." How many sub- 
jects and predicates in the sentence? Write other sentences 
like this one. Such sentences are simple. State the defin- 
ition. A simple sentence is -a sentence that has only one 
subject and one predicate. 

A complex sentence. Write, " The boy who told me has 
gone. The boy went when the bell rang." What do you 
find in the subject of the first sentence? In the predicate of 
the second? A sentence. Write other sentences like these 
two. Such sentences are complex. State the definition. A 
complex sentence is a sentence that has a sentence for a part 
of its subject or predicate. 

A compound sentence. Write, ' ' One comes and another 
goes." How many sentences in this sentence? Note that 
each sentence has an assertive force independent of the 
other. Write other sentences like this one. Such sentences 
are compound. State the definition. A compound sentence 
is a sentence composed of two or more independent sen- 
tences. 

Compound and complex sentence. Write, "The man 
who is sick is here, but his son has gone." What kind of a 
sentence is this? What do you find in the subject of this 
sentence? Write other sentences having the same construc- 
tion. What do you learn from these illustrations? I learn 
that a sentence may be both compound and complex. 

Compound and simple sentences. Write, " The boys and 
girls have gone. They went and returned.," What kind of 



264 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

a subject and predicate do you find in the first sentence? In 
the second? Write other sentences like these two. What do 
you learn from these illustrations? That a sentence may 
have one part compound and the other simple. 

A clause. In the preceding illustrations in which were 
sentences used as parts of other sentences? In all except 
the simple sentence. Such sentences are called clauses. 
State the definition of a clause. A clause is a sentence used 
as a part of another sentence. 

A phrase. Write, "Uncle Tom's Cabin" is a strong book. 
To give is better than to receive. They finished with ease. 
The book of poems had a cover of white paper. Notice the 
collection of words in italics in each sentence. Each has the 
force of what part of speech? Does the collection form a 
sentence? Such a collection of words is a phrase. State 
the definition. A phrase is a collection of words, which has 
the use of one part of speech, but does not form a sentence. 

(2) This is introductory teaching. After this teaching 
the pupils study the lesson, then present it to their class- 
mates and teacher. They have sufficient exercise in the 
application of the subject to make it a part of their mental 
possessions. Teaching the construction of sentences has a 
direct bearing upon the pupil's daily mental activity. It re- 
quires him to consider the relations of his ideas and thought, 
and how he shall make the simple, direct, and logical ex- 
pression of them. It gives him principles of construction by 
which he can test the correctness of his own constructions 
and those of others. It helps him to speak and write with 
greater facility and effectiveness. It interests him in the 
study of language. 

(3) A definite aim. The teacher has a definite aim in 
every lesson. He knows what steps the pupil needs to take. 
The pupil is led by simple statements and pertinent questions 
to discover and express ideas. He assimilates them by his 
own study, after the introductory teaching. He is examined 
upon what he has studied. His knowledge and power are 
tested by exercises in the application of what he has been 
taught. 



OBSERVATION IN THE FIVE GRAMMAR GRADES. 265 

(4) Hour for study. The pupil is given time to think 
his thought into definite expression. Great emphasis is 
placed upon the hour for study. The pupil does not think 
definitely until he thinks in words. The teacher does not 
know that the pupil thinks until he expresses his thought in 
definite statements. 

(5) Thought and expression inseparable. Accurate 
thought and statement must keep step. If the pupil thinks 
definitely, willing words will follow. Every lesson in definite 
thinking is a lesson in language. Accurate observation, 
thought, and expression are the basic elements of our intel- 
lectual life. They cultivate truthfulness. 

(6) Aim of this teaching. The aim of the teacher in 
these grades is to lead the pupils to be seekers of truth ; to 
find joy in a life of thought; to be lovers of the beautiful and 
good; to be self-reliant; and to be obedient to an enlightened 
conscience. Obedience is the first virtue to be taught with 
its twin brother, truthfulness. 

§IV. Direction of the Emotional Nature. 

The pupil is stimulated to activity by the spirit and skill 
of the teacher. This skill implies the wise direction of the 
emotional nature of the pupil. Egoistic emotions are strong 
in boys and girls, especially as they approach the transition 
to youth. They are often very sensitive and restive. Wild 
notions often hold sway; low and sensual ideals sometimes 
prevail. Boys are often thought to be especially annoying at 
this age. The teacher must not be irritated by these mani- 
festations. Knowing they will come, he is to be prepared to 
deal with them complacently. He must be especially careful 
not to nag the pupils by impertinent and sarcastic remarks. 
Just at this point many teachers lose self-control, and with it 
lose the respect of their pupils, and their power to help them 
to higher living. "A boy is inclined to be what everybody 
expects him to be, and knows what that is whether others 
think he does or not." This tumultuous state of feeling in 
pupils calls for sympathetic control, patience, courage, hope- 
fulness, and inspiration, rather than repression encourage- 



266 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

ment rather than censure. The teacher must keep worthy 
ideals before the pupils; cultivate most carefully their self- 
respect and self-control. 

§V. Observation in the Rural School. 

* ' I consider it the best part of an education to have been 
born and brought up in the country." — Alcott.. 

1. Teaching in the Rural School requires special con- 
sideration because the country boy and girl have such a dif- 
ferent environment from that of the city child. "The life 
of the country child is quiet, the best is not alv^ays made of 
it, his intelligence is not awakened to his possibilities, his 
surroundings are unambitious, his incentives are less, the 
means to better his conditions are often withheld from him. 
But he has a more robust physique, more wholesome food, 
more varied and interesting occupations, less vicious tempta- 
tions, can form more valuable and enduring friendships." 

2. The Country Child. In his dealing with men, the 
country child is not so keen of sight, so prompt in judgment, 
so quick to act, so free in expression as the city child. But he 
knows more of the action of natural forces, and of plants and 
animals in their habits and uses. He knows better the mean- 
ing of work, the value of time, money, and school privileges. 

3. Variety of Work. He has a greater variety of em- 
ployment, especially if hves upon a farm, — in "doing 
chores," in taking care of animals, in planting, cultivating, 
and harvesting, in solving the many mechanical problems 
which come to him in these various employments, in which 
he learns the use of many tools, the qualities of many mate- 
rials, and the action of physical forces. 

4. Self-development. The country child observes the 
varying phenomena of the earth and the heavens, he takes 
note of wind and weather, of the constantly varying physical 
conditions under which he lives, and the many modes of 
plant and animal life, which meet him on every side. He 
develops his physique, cultivates observation and thought- 
fulness, and the love of the beautiful in nature. He forms 
thrifty habits, has to be up and at work in the morning, to 



OBSERVATION IN THE FIVE GRAMMAR GRADES. 267 

be out of doors, to use his physical energy, to be prompt, dili- 
gent, energetic, resourceful, and self-reliant. All these con- 
ditions are conducive to self-development and strength of 
character. 

5. School Conditions. The condition of the pupils in the 
rural schoolroom is quite different from that of the pupils in 
the city school. The rural school usually has a fev^ pupils of 
every grade in the same room instead of having all the pupils 
in the same room of one grade. The younger pupils learn 
much from listening to the teaching of the older, and they 
are much influened by the conduct of their elders. The older 
pupils are constantly reviewing their former work by listen- 
ing to the teaching of the younger, and are kept in sympathy 
with the younger by their daily intercourse with them and 
their care for them. These stimuli are wanting in the school 
of one grade. The pupils in the rural school have less per- 
sonal attention from the teacher; they must rely more upon 
their own study for what they get, and they do this more 
readily from their habit of working at home. 

6. Opportunities of the Teacher. : The teacher of the 
rural school must be able to adapt himself to pupils of all 
ages. He has a more extended daily program of work, con- 
sequently must be prepared on a wider range of subjects, 
and he has to turn quickly from one grade of work to 
another. Usually, he has a better acquaintance with his 
pupils outside of school, knows more of their home life, and 
is in closer touch with their parents. These conditions give 
the teacher of the rural school a wider range of experience, 
and more rapid development of his power to teach, than he 
would get in any other school. fThe principles of teaching 
are the same for all schools, but the influences of home life 
and the natural environment of the pupils in the country are 
mingled in such different proportions, and are often so differ- 
ent in quality, that the application of the principles of teach- 
ing must vary quite sensibly. The teacher must be quick to 
take in all the conditions which influence his work, and to 
adapt his teaching to the needs of his pupils. Many a boy 
and girl has been started upon a career of great usefulness 



268 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

through the encouragement and inspiration of his or her 
teacher in the rural school. 

7. Development of Character. If the country boy and^ 
girl develop stronger characters and are more successful in 
the struggle of life, it is not alone due to the fact that they 
were trained in the rural school. This is not the ideal school, 
but it has its advantages. The development of character in 
the country is due as well to the quality and proportion of 
the influences outside of school life; to the more quiet life 
which favors thoughtfulness; to the teaching of nature, in 
the manifold beauties of the earth and sky, in the glories of 
the sunrise and sunset and the starry firmament; in the fore- 
thought of seedtime; in the patient cultivation of the summer 
time; in the rewards of the harvest time; and in the enjoy- 
ments of the fruits of labor in the winter time; and to the 
habits of industry, economy and thrift which a life in the 
country cultivates. There is no home like the good country 
home in which to rear children. 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 
OBSERVATION IN THE HIGH SCHOOL. 

" That man lives twice that lives the first life well." — Herrick. 

§1. Conditions of Work in the High School. 

1. The Status of the Pupil. The position of the 
pupil in the high school is different in many ways from that 
which he occupied in the lower grades. 

(1) He mingles with pupils from all sections of the 
town or city; he has wider social relations and different lines 
of amusement; he has to do more of his studying out of 
school, has to depend more upon his own resources and has 
to take greater responsibility. 

(2) The great changes in his physical development at 
this age give a new aspect to life in all its relations. Life 
seems to be not only a new thing, but a strange thing in 
many ways, with not a little of mystery hovering over some 
of its phases. The youth often does not know what he 
thinks, his feelings are tumultuous, and his choosing is fickle. 
At times, a feeling of lassitude controls him, and he falls 
into a dreamy state of mind. He is sensitive about his rela- 
tion to his elders, he desires to be noticed by them, and to 
take his place among them; his feeling about his dress and 
personal appearance and his regard for the other sex have 
greatly changed. 

(3) These changes in his physical development and the 
consequent change in his thinking, feeling, and willing call 
for wisdom and skill in directing the unfolding of the youth- 
ful hfe into young manhood and womanhood. The teacher 
needs to study his pupils closely and to adapt his teaching 
with great care to their needs, especially in relation to refine- 
ment of feeling, moral integrity, and spiritual uplifting. 



270 the teacher in modern life. 

§11. Quality and Product of the Teaching. 

1. The Teacher. The well qualified teachers in the 
high school are in hearty sympathy with pupils. They have 
the aptitude, character, knowledge, and skill requisite to 
direct their development. They know what has been done 
in the previous grades, they discover where on the way of 
life their pupils are, and they lead them on in a continuous 
advance in true living. 

2. Lines of Teaching. Good teaching in the high school 
leads the pupil to a wider observation in the realms of nature 
and human activity; to broader and deeper thinking; to per- 
spicuous expression of thought; to a growing appreciation of 
truth by extending the elementary knowledge of the pupil 
and adding the scientific knowledge of the subjects studied. 

It leads the pupil to a keener perception and finer appre- 
ciation of beauty along all the lines of study. 

It leads the pupil to a stronger love for goodness; to in- 
creasing self-respect, self-reliance, and self-control; to a 
fuller consideration of his relations to his fellowmen and to 
God; to the rights and duties that arise from these relations; 
and to a clearer conception of the perfection of human char- 
acter 

3. Range of Work. The pupils should be led to consider 
what they are studying, the method of their study, and its 
relation to their life. Their work should be both scientific 
and practical, and should include manual, industrial, and vo- 
cational work, in the laboratory and out of doors with nature. 

§111. Teaching English. 

1. The Aim. The aim of the study is " the mastery of 
Enghsh as a tool." 

2. Language Defined. (1) We have the power to asso- 
ciate our ideas and feelings with looks, smiles, laughter, 
tears, sighs, gesticulations, motions, and tones of the voice, 
so that similar ideas and feelings may be awakened in other 
minds. 

(2) We have the power to associate our ideas with cer- 
tain sounds, called spoken words. 



OBSERVATION IN THE HIGH SCHOOL.. 271 

(3) We have the power to associate our ideas with 
certain characters, called written words. ' 

First. Language, primarily, is the power by which we 
associate our ideas with their proper signs, that we may give 
them effective expression. 

Second. Language, secondarily, is the system of signs 
by which we express our thoughts, feelings, and vohtions. 

3. Language of Action and Its Cultivation. The first 
language used by man is the language of action in which we 
use the natural signs of facial expressions, intonations of the 
voice, and gestures, signs which every human being uses and 
understands. Through these natural signs men of every 
clime can communicate with each other; the youngest child 
can understand those who approach him, even the lower 
animals are controlled by man through the use of these signs. 
Everyone knows the power of a look, a smile, of laughter, 
tears, the cry of distress, and of gesture. The whole soul 
finds expression in the eye, the voice, the carriage of the 
body; but without careful study of these powers we do not 
appreciate their full meaning. 

The first condition for the effective use of natural signs 
is to appreciate the power of this language in the expression 
of thought, feeling, and volition. The power of the language 
of action is seen in the power of tones, looks, gestures, and 
attitudes, in oratory, in dramatic performance, in pantomime, 
and in deaf mutes. 

Training in the language of action gives one command of 
himself in the use of the face, the voice, and in the carriage 
of the body. It makes the difference between the boor and 
the gentleman in manner and bearing. We acquire facility 
in the use of this power by keeping the body in good health; 
by cultivating a cheerful countenance, in a word " by being 
wealthy in cheerfulness;" by intelligent training in facial 
expression, vocal expression, and gesture; and by close ob- 
servation of persons who have cultivated these powers. 

4. Articulate Language and Its Cultivation. The lan- 
guage of action is not sufficient to meet all the needs of social 
life. Each people has it own system of spoken words, which 



272 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

one of another people must learn before he can talk with the 
former. 

(1) Spoken words are conventional signs. The power 
of speech is given to every man. The form of the signs used 
is determined by the people who live together. The spoken 
words of our language are composed of fourteen open sounds, 
called vowels, which are formed by holding the upper vocal 
organs open and vocalizing the breath as it is forced through 
the larynx; and twenty-eight articulate sounds, called conso- 
nants, which l^are formed in the mouth by the movement of 
the upper vocal organs upon the breath as it is forced 
through them. Since articulate sounds predominate in spoken 
words, speech is called articulate language. The first pro- 
duct of any people is a spoken language, for the interchange 
of ideas in their daily life. 

(2) Learning spoken words. A person learns spoken 
words, by listening to the speaker to hear accurately what is 
spoken, and by thinking of what is said until it is definitely 
understood. There is great value in learning to hear. A 
good listener gets what is spoken; he becomes a thinker, and 
accurate thinking leads to definite performance. Hearing 
accurately lis the difference between failure and success in 
the ordinary intercourse of life. 

(3) Facility in speaking. Every one gains facility in 
speaking, by being a good listener, that he may profit by the 
example of others; by careful observation and wide reading, 
that he may have something worth saying; by much practice 
in speaking upon topics definitely thought out. The power 
to speak effectively is a great achievement. Prof. G. H. 
Palmer says: "He who can explain himself may command 
what he wants. Men do what we desire only when per- 
suaded. The persuasive and explanatory tongue is, there- 
fore, one of the chief levers of life. Its leverage is felt with- 
in us, as well as without, for expression and thought are 
integrally bound together." 

(4) Marcel says: "In the act of speech one being 
seems to be divided into two distinct individuals in intimate 
communication with each other the one speaking, the other 



OBSERVATION IN THE HIGH SCHOOL. 273 

listening; the one executing, the other judging the perfor- 
mance. No other vehicle of thought so effectually elicits this 
double action of the mind; none so intimately communicates 
with the brain. The numberless intonations and inflections 
of the voice can manifest the slightest or deepest emotions, 
and can exhibit the minutest shades of ideas." 

(5) Speech and climate. "It is interesting to notice 
that spoken language varies very much w^ith the climate in 
which a people live. Warm climates occasion the relaxation 
of the muscles called into use in speaking, which softens the 
vocal action, and increases the melody of the voice; while 
cold climates contract these muscles, increase the energy, 
produce close and short utterance, and make articulate 
sounds predominant in speech. This difference in the eu- 
phony of spoken language, ' made Charles V wittily observe, 
that English should be used in speaking to birds; German to 
horses; Italian to women; French to men; and Spanish to 
God. ' Spoken words directly represent ideas, and they are 
always accompanied by the natural signs of the language of 
action. The union of speech and the language of action gives 
the perfection of language. ' ' 

5. Written Language and Its Cultivation. People living 
together have learned to associate their ideas with perma- 
nent signs, that they may communicate with those who are 
distant from them either in space or time. These are com- 
posed of letters which represent the elementary sounds of 
the spoken words and form the alphabet of written language. 

(1) Written words represent ideas and spoken words. 
To have a perfect system of signs we should have as many 
letters in our alphabet as we have elementary sounds in the 
spoken words. The fact that we have only twenty-six letters 
to represent forty-two elementary sounds makes many irreg- 
ularities in our written words. It greatly increases the 
difficulty of the correct writing and pronunciation of words. 
Besides these irregularities we have superfluous letters in 
some words, the rehcs of former ways of spelling. The ele- 
mentary sounds and the names of the letters are different. 
We must be careful to distinguish the name of the letter 



274 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

from the elementary sound which the letter represents. 

(2) Written language is indispensable to every one who 
wishes to record and extend his knowledge, and to avail 
himself of the knowledge of those with whom he cannot 
speak. We use language of action, articulate language, and 
written language. To which we may add pictorial language. 
The picture of an object is a sign of the object. 

(3) Two things are necessary to facility in the use of 
written language. First, we must learn to read, that is, to 
get the thought expressed by the written language and to 
express it orally. Second, we must learn to write, that is, to 
use written words effectively in the expression of thought. 
Written words are purely arbitrary signs. There is nothing 
in them to awaken the desire to know them. The desire to 
read has to be excited by the teacher. 

(4) Teaching to read. The first thing is to teach the be 
ginner to associate ideas with written words. The second 
thing is to teach the pupil to think the thought at sight of 
the sentence. That is, teach him to read silently. The third 
thing is to teach the pupil to speak the sentence so as to ex- 
press the thought. Speech is the key to reading. 

(5) Auxiliary exercises. We can read orally only as we 
know at sight the meaning and pronunciation of every word. 
We can know the meaning of the word only as we know the 
object for which the word stands. We can pronounce the 
word only as we know the powers of the letters, the syllabi- 
cation of the words, and the meaning and the accent. Aux- 
iliary exercises to learn the meaning and pronunication of 
words, and physical and vocal exercises to develop the power 
of the voice, are essential aids in learning to read. 

(6) Facility in reading. The reader can get the thought 
of the writer only as far as he has had experience similar to 
that of the writer. Facility in silent reading is conditioned 
upon accurate observation, careful study, and extended infor- 
tion. Expressive oral reading requires the observance of the 
conditions noticed for effective speaking. 

(7) Value of reading. The power to read may bring us 
into communication with the greatest and best minds of both 



OBSERVATION IN THE HIGH SCHOOL. 275 

the past and the present, increase our information, and stim- 
ulate our thought and action. 

(8) Learning to write. We learn to write effectively, 
first, by learning to speak simply and directly; second, by 
frequent practice in writing, with close attention to the 
choice of words, construction, spelling, punctuation, the unity 
of the sentence and paragraph, and to the relation of the 
parts to each other and to the whole; third, by aiming to 
express our thought in the way that will be most easily un- 
derstood by those for whom we write. Facility in writing 
comes only by persistent, careful practice, with much revision, 
if need be. seeking the best thought and the best expression 
we can command. 

Prof. George H. Palmer, in his Essay on Self Cultivation 
of English, gives excellent directions for writing. He says : 

First, ' ' Look well to your speech. We speak a hundred 
times for every once we write. Consequently through speech 
it is usually decided whether a man is to have command of 
his language or not." 

Second, "Welcome every opportunity for writing." 
' ' There is no work known to man more difficult than writing. 
Only practice breeds ease. ' ' 

Third, " Remember the other person." "Every utter- 
ance really concerns two. Its aim is social. I must write 
with pains, that he may read with ease. How can I tell all 
I long to tell, and still be sure the telling will be for him as 
lucid and dehghtful as for me?" 

Fourth, "Lean upon your subject." "Those who in 
their utterance fix their thought upon themselves, or on other 
selves, never reach power." 

Fifth, " We should do the work and not think about it; 
do it day after day and not grow w^eary in bad doing. Early 
and often we must be busy, and be satisfied to have a great 
deal of labor produce but a small result." 

Sixth, " This teaching by itself is not true. It needs the 
supplementation of others. Let him who would speak or 
write well seek out good speakers and writers. Let him live 
in their society, for the society of the greatest writers is open 



276 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

to the most secluded — let him feel the ease of their excel- 
lence, the ingenuity, grace, and scope of their diction, and he 
will soon find in himself capacities whose development may 
be aided by the precepts I have given. Most of us catch 
better than we learn." 

§IV. The Opportunity of the High School. 

1. Speaker and Hearer. The cultivation of the power of 
language is of signal importance to every person. Hearing, 
speaking, reading, and writing are the great highways of 
human intercourse and progress. Good speaking implies ap- 
preciative hearers. The good speaker gives the best of 
himself to the sympathetic hearer, quickens his thought, 
moves him to high purpose and vigorous exertion. In return 
the good listener stimulates the speaker to his best effort. 

2. Writer and Reader. Good writing implies the intel- 
ligent reader. The good writer gives the best of his life to 
the cultivated reader, elevates his thought, deepens his 
emotion, incites him to higher living. Great emphasis should 
be placed upon the cultivation of the power of language, the 
growth of our life depends directly upon the increase of this 
power. 

3. Maxim of English Teaching. Teachers often say: "It 
seems quite impossible to establish a pupil in the use of good 
English who never hears the language spoken properly in his 
own home, and who hears it constantly misused by his asso- 
ciates outside." Dr. Nicolas Murray Butler says: "The one 
ruling maxim of English teaching ought to be: The child will 
speak and write the sort of English that he hears and reads." 
There is much complaint of the schools, from the common 
schools to the university, that they do not train the pupil to 
speak and write good English. 

4. Necessity of Home Teaching. The school can do, and 
does do, much to improve the language of its pupils, but good 
English will never be fully secured until " the fathers and 
mothers understand that it is in the home that proper facil- 
ities for reading must be supplied them." There is no 
language so influential upon the child as * 'the mother tongue. " 



OBSERVATION IN THE HIGH SCHOOL. 277 

5. Teacher Should Do His Best. If the home and his 
associates give the pupil only corrupt English, it is the 
strongest reason why the wise, sympathetic teacher, who 
understands his pupil and knows how to appeal to the best 
that is in him, should do everything he can do to make his 
pupil familiar with good spoken English and the best written 
English. Everything which the school does in this direction 
re-acts upon the home and upon society. 

6. The Dignity of Language. The language of our social 
environment is what the individual members of society make 
it. To make it what it ought to be, we, as a people, must be 
raised to the level on which we shall seek to live the higher 
life. We must be led to a larger conception of the dignity of 
language so that we shall give no countenance to illiteracy. 
Every person must help in this uplifting of the pupil. 

7. Unconscious Influence of the Teacher. The teacher 
of the high school has a grand opportunity to unfold the 
esthetic and moral life of the youth who come under his 
teaching. If the juices of his nature are not dried up, if he 
is " pleasant and honest, appreciates a joke as well as other 
people, " is refined in his taste, is whole souled, has strong 
spirituality, and sound common sense, his unconscious in- 
fluence will flow into the life of his pupils, as the atmosphere 
comes into the blood, to vivify and strengthen their whole 
being. 

8. Conscious Influence of the Teacher. If he is scholarly, 
loves nature, and has an eye for her beauties, an ear for her 
melodies, a thought for her truths; if he keeps himself 
human, loves men of all conditions, has a passionate desire 
to do them all the good he can, his conscious influence upon 
the lives of his pupils will be great. 

9. Constant Opportunity. He has constant opportunity 
in the different subjects he studies with his pupils to teach 
the beauties of nature and human life so as to elevate their 
taste, to teach moral action so as to quicken their consciences, 
to teach the relation of nature and man to God, in such a way 
as to lead them to loving reverence for Him. 

10. The Teacher's Privilege. If the teacher keeps him- 



278 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

self in sympathy with his pupil, studies his emotional nature, 
meets him so that the pupil feels that he has a personal re- 
gard for him, it is his privilege to do him great good in guid- 
ing him through the critical period of youth when * ' the feel- 
ings become passions, and, like floods when uncontrolled, 
sweep on to ruin; " when he thinks so much about himself; 
when life seems to him so different from what it ever did be- 
fore; and when he thinks he knows his own need better than 
any one can tell him, then he needs sympathetic help, and 
the sober counsel of one in whom he has confidence, who can 
lead him when he will not be driven. 

11. The Atmosphere of the School. The pupil needs to 
consider the outcome or life, to seek the perfection of his own 
life. The teacher may lead him to do this by quickening his 
desire for the knowledge of truth and beauty; by turning his 
thought to the lives of noble and successful men and women 
that he may be stimulated to do what they have done, to be 
what they have become; and by strengthening his sense of 
duty to the Author of his life. The atmosphere of the school 
should be saturated with integrity, uprightness, earnestness, 
and perseverance. There should be no subterfuges, no sham, 
no deception. Truthfulness, justice, and purity should be 
the law of the school. 



CHAPTER XXIX. 
PRELIMINARY PRACTICE IN TEACHING. 

1. After Ample Observation of Teaching in good homes, 
as far as possible, and in all the grades of a good public 
school, with a first class teacher at work in charge of each 
room; when the student-teacher has some just conception of 
the nature and method of true teaching, when he has become 
acquainted with the pupils, he should have ample preliminary 
practice in teaching under such supervision as he needs. To 
put the student to teaching before this preparation is a wrong 
to him, and a much greater wrong to the children. We have 
no right to waste the children's birthright by ignorant 
attempts at teaching them. 

2. The Practice of the Art of Teaching calls for an artist 
who has the greatest natural aptitude, the noblest character, 
the fullest knowledge, the ripest experience, and the most 
delicate skill. Hence, the art is never fully mastered. The 
best teacher may improve. The young teacher has not all 
this power, but he should strive for it with all his might. 

3. A Period of Preliminary Effort is just as necessary 
for the teacher as the period of hospital practice is for the 
physician; as the period of office practice is for the lawyer; as 
the period of licensed exhortation is for the preacher; as the 
period of apprenticeship in every trade and in every business 
is for everyone before assuming the full responsibility of the 
trade or business. 

4. Teaching Must Be Regarded and Conducted As a Pro- 
fession. There is no art more important than the art of teach- 
ing, none in which failure is more disastrous. The school is 
to be conducted for the unfolding and perfecting of the pupil. 
Hence, the necessity for the best possible preliminary prep- 
aration before the teacher assumes the responsibilities of the 
art. 



CHAPTER XXX. 
THE PERSONALITY OF THE TEACHER. 



The personal influence of the true teacher flowing into the life of 
his pupil through the impressionable years of childhood and youth is of 
priceless value. 

§1. Personality and Its Expression. 

1. Personality Described. Personality is that peculiar 
combination of qualities in the person which distinguishes 
him from all other persons. It is the odor of the soul, which 
makes its atmosphere fragrant or noxious. It is the flavor of 
the soul, which makes it sweet or bitter to the taste. It is 
the vibrations of the soul, which make its sound melodious or 
harsh. It is the color of the soul, which makes it bright or 
dull. It is the human touch, warm, vital, close; or cold, limp, 
and loose. It is the personal charm which magnetizes, or 
that lack of charm which repulses. It is the spirit of love, 
or the spirit of selfishness. It is that inexpressible something 
which warms or chills the soul. 

2. Expression of Personality. 1. The soul has two 
gates through which it goes out to other souls. The first is 
the gate of unconscious influence, which is always open. 

(1) The temper reveals the real stuff of which the per- 
son is made; "it pervades all his behavior by its sweetness or 
its sourness. " The temper we have suffered to grow up in 
all the years of our past must flnd expression in the daily 
Hfe. The temper of the teacher unconsciously affects the 
life of the pupil for bane or blessing. Sweetness of temper 
is a great treasure. 

(2) The face is a perpetual picture of the state of the 
soul. "The face is the open dial of muscle and fibre, of form 



THE PERSONALITY OF THE TEACHER. 281 

and color, eye and mouth, which mocks all schemes of con- 
cealment. " It is the playground of the feelings. The soul 
must shine through it. Pupils study the teacher's face as 
unconsciously as he exhibits it. The teacher who keeps a 
good face is sunshine to his pupils. 

(3) The voice, by its quality and volume, by its tone, 
modulation, and cadence, discloses the feeling of the heart. 
Some voices are full of sweetness and melody. Others have 
a tone of sadness and monotony. "The moral coloring of 
the soul finds expression in these unpremeditated tones of 
the teacher's voice." 

(4) The manner of the person — "the combination of 
bearing, attitude, gait, and gestures, by which spirit is acted 
into form" — is an unconscious revelation of personality. 
Manners cannot be taken on and put off. ' *A noble and at- 
tractive every-day bearing comes of goodness, of sincerity, 
of refinement; and these are bred in years, not moments. " 
Fine manners in the teacher quicken the pupil's thought and 
start the springs of feeling. Pupils unconsciously imitate 
the manners of the teacher. "Children are not educated 
till they catch the charm that makes a gentleman or a gentle- 
woman. " This is the language of action by which the 
teacher reveals to his pupils constantly the temper, taste, 
and motives of his heart. 

(5) Example. The strongest manifestation of uncon- 
scious influence is in the transcendent power of example. 
"Every good man and every bad man has a power in his 
person and action which is more potent than his words, 
which takes hold on the hearts of others whether he will have 
it so or not. " One's life gives power to his words. To do 
good we must be good. Our life can shine only as our char- 
acter is luminous. 

The power of one's personality is primarily in the uncon- 
scious influences he exerts, which almost invariably agree 
with the real character; "they follow the character as a 
shadow follows the sun." The power of unconscious influ- 
ence is seen in the readiness with which children imitate 
those about them. ' ' The child looks and listens and the tone 



282 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

of feeling and manner of conduct of those about him sink 
into his soul to mold his life." 

2. The second gate through which the soul goes out is 
the gate of speech, which we open and shut at will as we 
purpose to do good or evil to others. Jeremy Taylor says, 
"In the use of the tongue God hath distinguished us from 
beasts, and by the well or ill using of it we are distinguished 
from one another." "A word fitly spoken is like apples of 
gold in pictures of silver." " There are words whose sting 
remains through a whole life," 

§11. Cultivation of Personality. 

1. Personality is Cultivated by cultivating physical 
health, strength, beauty, and grace, which condition all men- 
tal expression. 

2. Personality is Cultivated by cultivating one's personal 
habits. 

(1) The habit of neatness, always presenting in person 
and surroundings an agreeable appearance. 

(2) The habits of order and punctuality in everything 
and everywhere, which show the sanity of the mind and 
command respect universally. 

(3) The habit of accuracy in observation, thought, ex- 
pression, and work, which is essential to truthfulness. 

(4) The habit of industry, " the filling of the day with 
a round of work well done," which strengthens mental and 
moral fiber. 

(5) The habit of controlling the tongue, wisely deciding 
when to speak, when not to speak; what to say, what not to 
say, which gives self-control and self-determination. 

(6) The habit of genial conversation, seeking good so- 
ciety for recreation and improvement, which makes life 
cheerful. 

(7) The habit of appreciating the beautiful in nature 
and in art, which refines the soul. 

(8) The habit of appreciating the truth, beauty, and 
goodness in our fellowmen, which awakens sympathy and 
love for them. 



THE PERSONALITY OF THE TEACHER. 283 

(9) The habit of taking the initiative, which opens the 
gate of progress. 

(10) The habit of doing one's best in everything he un- 
dertakes, which gives him constantly increasing power. 

3, Thoughtfulness is the Primary Condition for Cultivat- 
ing Personality. (1) Paul says, "Whatsoever things are 
true, whatsoever things are honest, whatsoever things are 
just, whatsover things are pare, whatsoever things are 
lovely, whatsoever things are of good report, think on these 
things." 

(2) It is in the still hour of thought that we learn what 
to speak, what not to speak; what to do, what not to do; how 
to express our thought clearly, forcibly, persuasively; how to 
marshall our forces for effective action. Thinking makes 
the man, thinking makes the teacher. We should think be- 
fore we act, we should think after we have acted; " we learn 
nothing from our experience except we muse upon it." The 
still hour of preparation and of musing is the measure of the 
teacher's progress. 

(3) In the still hour of thought we cultivate personality 
by seeking the companionship of books. "Of all inanimate 
objects a good book is surely the most like a person; it comes 
the nearest to being alive, with a human soul." 

(4) Again, in the still hour of thought we cultivate 
personality by making friends with nature. "We should 
think of nature as something wonderful, something alive 
with a spirit that can sympathize with our spirit. The eye 
one needs to look at nature with, is the eye of imagination. 
That is about the only eye that ever sees anything clearly 
and sees it whole." 

(5) Finally, in the still hour of thought we cultivate 
personality by seeking the companionship of God. The con- 
scious sense of God in all our life is the culmination of our 
power. 

" Every time we look upon the light, or the beauty of a 
lily, or hear a tree rustle, or a brook murmur, or a bird sing; 
yea, every time we feel our hand move, or our head turn we 
have sufficient evidence that He is not far." 



^84 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

"The sun, the moon, the stars, the seas, the hills, and 
the plains — 
Are not these, O soul, the Vision of Him who reigns? 
" Speak to Him then, for He hears, and Spirit with 
Spirit can meet — 
Closer is He than breathing, and nearer than hands 
and feet. 
"And the ear of man cannot hear, and the eye of man 
cannot see; 
But if we could see and hear, this Vision — were it not 
He?" 

Henry Ward Beecher voices the truth when he says, ' ' It 
is God that makes the stillness of the air so sweet. It is God 
that makes the tumult of the storm so enjoyable. It is God 
that makes the night better than the bed to our weary 
thought. It is God that makes the daylight full of splendor 
and full of glory. It is God that rules the year. Nature 
would be scarcely worth a puff of the empty wind if it were 
not that all nature is a temple of which God is the brightness 
and the glory. Not the Bible alone, but the earth teaches of 
God." 



CHAPTER XXXI. 
IN CONCLUSION. 

"They only have lived long who have lived virtuously." — Sheridan. 

1. The Synthetic View of the Whole Subject of This 
Volume. 

Man is a self -active, physical, rational being made in the 
image of God, and is given the place of dominion over this 
world. 

The Earth in its beauty and grandeur is the home of man 
in the life which he is now living, the laboratory in which 
man is to work out the problems of his life. 

This life is the great world school in which the genera- 
tions of men are being educated. 

Modern life is the stage of physical and spiritual evolu- 
tion through which the men of today are passing. 

The function of the modern teacher is to stimulate and 
direct the pupil to the conscious exertion and control of all 
his powers, up to the full measure of his ability, under the 
laws of his being. These laws are the conditions for the un- 
folding and perfecting of his life. 

The human being starts in life with his inheritance of 
the vital forces, the natural aptitudes, and personal traits 
which have flowed into his life from the generations of his 
ancestors. 

He is ignorant of the life into which he has come with a 
long period of infancy before him in which he is to make 
good the unfolding of his powers for an endless career. 

In his six story life, the nutritive, the animal, the intel- 
lectual, the emotional, the moral, the spiritual life, he is to 
live every day in the upper stories of moral and spiritual 



286 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 

principles that he may have the fullest, most harmonious life 
in the whole range of his being. 

He is to seek the five great goods of true living— health, 
truth, beauty, goodness, and God, who is "all in all." 

In his six-fold environment, of nature: the home; the 
school; the church; the larger community of the state, the 
nation, the race; and God; he is to keep his mind wide open 
to the inspiration of all the helpful influences of this environ- 
ment, that he may grow to the full stature of true manhood 
with the conscious sense of God in all his life. 

2. The Living Teacher must have insight into himself 
and his pupil and into the environment in which he and his 
pupil five. 

He must have largeness of view to comprehend life in 
the fulness of its meaning. 

He must have inspiration "for nothing great and lasting 
can be done except by inspiration." 

He must have the light of Infinite wisdom, the aid of 
Infinite power, and the spirit of Infinite love. 

He must have the teaching of the Great Teacher by 
whose life his own life is quickened to the full appreciation 
of the teacher's mission. 

The conclusion of the whole matter is:— 

3. Know Thyself, to the full extent of thy personahty; 
Know human nature in its full comprehension, in its 

highest worthiness; 

Know your pupil at his best; 

Know the environment of yourself and your pupil to the 
full measure of your ability; 

Know thoroughly the subjects you are to use in teaching; 

Know skilfully the art of teaching; 

Know wisely the organization of your school; 

Know spiritually the principles of government; 

Cultivate assiduously your own personality. 

4. Love Your Work. Be willing to do whatever is 
necessary to secure the highest well-being of your pupils. 
The quality of the teaching, the instruction, the education in 
your school depends upon your fidehty. Do your work in the 



IN CONCLUSION. 287 

spirit of Him " who came not to be ministered unto but to 
minister." Do not overwork, and thereby diminish your 
power to work, 

5. Love Your Pupils. Be courteous to them, and be 
thoroughly honest with them, so that by the example of your 
own life, and personal interest in them, you may inspire them 
with an ardent desire to lead a true, noble life. 

" This above all — to thine ownself be true; 
And it must follow, as the night the day. 
Thou canst not then be false to any man." 

And then shall be fulfilled the promise of the Great 
Teacher, "the friend of all children, the teacher of all 
teachers," thou and thy pupils " shall have life, and shall 
have it more abundantly." 



INDEX. 



Page. 



Page* 



Abstraction, defined, . 109, 120 


Kinds of. 


. 181 


Action, principles of, . 179, 180 


Choice, moral choice, 


. 49 


Appetites, 


65 


How made. 


. 180 


Desires 


. 165 


Generic choice. 


. 181 


Affections, 


. 167 


Concept, defined. 


. 121 


Affections, defined, . 


. 167 


Comprehension of 


. 122 


Benevolent, 


167 


Extension of . 


. 122 


Defensive, 


168 


Relations of, . 


. 123 


Primitive, 


168 


Series of, 


. 125 


Art, defined. 


35-37 


Logical definition oi 


r, . . 127 


Artist, defined, . 


38 


Logical division of, 


. 130 


Qualifications of, 


38 


Conscience, defined, 


. 177 


Assimilation, 


63 


Two elements of . 


. 177 


Association of ideas, defined, 


99 


Enlightened conscie 


nee, . 177 


Principle of, defined, 


100 


Consciousness, definec 


1, . .71 


Primary principles, 




Inferences, 


71 


Time, .... 


100 


Consciousness and att 


ention, . 73 


Place, . . ' . 


100 


Definition, logical, de 


fined, . 127 


Resemblance, 


101 


Rules of. 


. 128 


Contrast, 


101 


Desires, defined, 


. 165 


Cause and effect. 


101 


Specific desires. 




Secondary principles. 




Of life. 


. 166 


Interest, 


102 


Of property. 


. 166 


Attention, 


102 


Of knowledge. 


. 166 


Repetition, 


102 


Of power. 


. 166 


Lapse of time. 


102 


Of esteem, . 


. 166 


Bodily vigor, . 


102 


General desires. 




Attention, defined. 


72 


Of good. 


. 166 


Objects of, . 


72 


Of liberty, . 


. 166 


Of the child 


73 


Of society, . 


. 166 


Body, defined, .... 


51 


Development, defined 


. 71 


Plan of, 


52 


Stages of. 


. 17 


Ends to be sought, 


66 


Complete, 


30-33 


Book, defined, .... 


76 


Disposition, defined, . 


. 69 


Calorification, .... 


63 


Division, logical, defir 


led . 130 


Certainty, defined, . 


145 


Rules of. 


. 132 


Character, defined, . 


179 


Education, defined, . 


. 22 


How formed, . 


181 


As a means, . 


. 22 



INDEX. 





Page. 








As an end, 


. 22 


Of governor. 


In widest meaning, 


. 23 


Of subject, . 




Educational study, 




Habit, defined, . 




Of man indispensable, 


. 40 


Heredity, .... 




Object of, . . . 


. 41 


Hearing, 




Method of. 


. 41 


Knowledge derived. 




Difficulties of. 


. 42 


Qualities of matter. 




Requisites of. 


. 42 


Uses of, . 




Of subjects, . 


. 189 


Home teaching. 






Elaboration of thought, 


. 155 


Hope, defined, . 






Modes of 


. 155 


Human industries. 






Conditions of . 


. 155 


Idea, defined. 






Products of 


. 155 


First ideas. 






Elements of knowledge. 


. 96 


Imagination, 






Elements of thought. 


. 120 


Reproductive, 






Comparison, . 


. 120 


Productive, 






Abstraction, . 


. 120 


Products of, . 






Analysis, 


. 120 


Uses of, . 






Synthesis, 


. 120 


Cultivation of. 






Emotions, defined. 


. 165 


Inference, defined, 






Pleasure, 


. 165 


Information, defined, 




Pain, 


. 165 


Inner sense, defined. 




Environment, six-fold, 


. 16 


Condition of, . 




Natural, . 


. 28 


Inner world, 






Human, . 


. 29 


Instinct, defined. 






Divine, . 


. 30 


Play instinct, . 






Evolution of the earth, 


. 12 


Instinct of imitatio 


ti> 




Of mechanical power, 


. 19 


Instruction, defined. 






Examination, modes of, . 


211-215 


Intellect, defined, 






Fear, defined. 


. 168 


Joy, defined. 






Forces active in man. 


. 48 


Judgment, defined. 






Rational life, 




True and false. 






Animal life, 




Division of. 






Nutritive life. 




Value of. 






Chemical affinity. 




Kindergarten, . 






Cohesion, 




Knowledge, defined. 






Gravitation, 




Elementary, . 






Generalization, unconsciou 


s, . 119 


Scientific, 






Reflective, 


. 121 


Object of 






Basis of . 


. 121 


Degrees of 






Products of, . 


. 121 


Language a power. 




. 9 


Government, defined. 


. 231 


System of signs. 






Right to govern. 


. 231 


Cultivation of 






What government requi 


res, . 232 


Of action, . 







INDEX. 



Page. 



Speech, 


. 272, 273 


Natures of man. 




49 


Articulate. 


. 271 


Natural rewards, . . 233-235 


Written, 


. 275 


Obedience, defined, . 


232 


Law, defined, 


. 70 


How secured. 


236 


Law of things, 


. 70 


Assertion of authority, . 236, 238 


Law of persons. 


. 70 


Objects of thought. 




Law of conduct. 


. 183 


Real object, . 


202 


Laws of life. 


13, 18 


Model, . 




202 


Leadership, 


. 26 


Picture, . 




202 


Life, . 


. 11 


Diagram, 




202 


Human, . 


. 11 


Experiment, 




202 


Modern, . 


. 11 


The drawing. 




203 


Higher, . 


. 12 


Language, 




203 


Nutritive, 


. 15 


Illustration and definition. 


203 


Animal, . 


. 16 


Illustration and division. 


203 


Intellectual, 


. 16 


The book. 


204 


Emotional, 


. 16 


Object, knowledge of. 


94 


Moral, 


. 16 


Observation, exact, . 


94 


Spiritual, 


.' 16 


Order, 




Aim of, . 


. 20 


Natural, 


200 


Lines of activity 


. 225, 259, 270 


Logical 


200 


Living, defined, 


. 15, 173 


Organization, defined. 


220 


Man's home. 


. 50 


Advantages of. 


220 


Man's place in w 


orld, . . 48 


Opening school. 


222 


Memory, defined 


. 103 


Classification of. 


225 


Kinds of. 




Order of exercises. 


226 


Circumstant 


al, . . . 104 


Keeping order. 


228 


Philosophica 


1, . . . 104 


Perception, defined, . 


80 


Cultivation of. 


. 105 


Immediate, 


89 


Memorizing ve 


rbatim, . . 105 


Mediate, 


90 


Mental current. 


98, 99 


Acquired perceptions, . 


92 


Mental states, 


. 67 


Cultivation of 


94 


Method, defined, 


. 154 


Percept, defined, 


90 


Method of study 


. 155 


Personality of teacher. 




The one metho 


d, 


Described, 


280 


Of developm 


ent, . . 195 


Expression of, . . 28 


0, 281 


Of teaching. 


. 196 


Cultivation of, . . 21 


^2-284 


Mind, defined. 


. 67 


Phenomena, defined. 


68 


Moral choice. 


. 175 


Material, 




Moral nature. 


. 49 


Mental, 




Moral training. 


. 230, 231 


Preliminary practice. 


279 


Motive, defined, 


. 169 


Preparation, 




Motives to exert 


ion, . . .210 


Special daily, . 


. 216 


Nature, defined, 


. 49 


General daily, 


. 2] 


16-218 



iv 



INDEX. 



Of lessons, . . . . 


Pagg. 
218 


From experience, 






Pag.j. 
189 


Of class work, 


219 


From induction, . . .140 


Presentative power, defined, 


96 


From analogy, . . . 141 


Conditions of, . . . 


96 


Reasoning, probable, . . 141 


Products of 


96 


Reasoning, demonstrative, . 143 


Principle, defined, 


71 


Recapitulation, 


Proof, defined, . . . , 


145 


Of mind's activity, . 185, 186 


Psychology, defined, . 


68 


Reviews, 


. 214 


Purpose of teacher, . 


15 


Rule, defined. 






71 


Quality of body, defined, '. 


90 


Rural school, 






266 


Classification of, . 


81 


School home. 






33 


Questions, 




School grounds. 






34 


The primary, . . . . 


12 


Science, defined. 






152 


Primal, 


43 


Sensation, defined, 






79 


Questioning, 




Sense perception, 






80 


To question, . . . . 


204 


Four conditions of, 




80 


Preliminary, ... 20 


4, 205 


Senses, 






Instructive, . . . . 


206 


Touch, . 




79 


Examination, . . 21 


2, 213 


Sight, 






79 


Rational intuitions. 




Hearing, 






79 


Of intellect, . . . . 


76 


Taste, 






79 


Being, . . . . 


77 


Smell, . 






79 


Space, . . . . 


77 


Sensibility, defined. 






157 


Time, . . . . 


77 


Modes of. 




162-168 


Personal identity. 


77 


Cultivation of. 




. 168 


Number, 


78 


Sensorium, defined. 




62, 79 


Difference, 


78 


Sight, 




Resemblance, 


78 


Knowledge derived. 


84, 85 


Of sensibility. 




Qualities of matter. 


. 86 


A good. 


159 


Noblest sense. 


. 86 


Beauty, 


]60 


Skill, defined, . 


. 26 


The ludicrous. 


161 


Sorrow, defined 


. 168 


Of the will. 




Soul, defined. 


15, 49 


Personality, 


173 


Smell, 




Causation, . 


173 


Knowledge derived. 


. 89 


Freedom, 


174 


Quality of matter, 


. 89 


Right and obligation, 


174 


Use of, . 


. 89 


Right over others, 


174 


Spirit, defined, . 


15, 49 


Merit and demerit. 


. 175 


Study, defined, . 


. 154 


Responsibility, 


. 175 


Educational study of man, . 40 


Punishment, 


175 


Of subjects 189 


Rational activity, 


. 68 


Synthetic view of this volume, . 285 


Three modes of. 


. 69 


Systems, 


Reasoning, defined, . 


. 139 


Nutritive, 









INDEX. 



y 


Page, 






Page. 


' Digestive, . 


. . 62 


Growth of, . . 


. 27 


Absorbent, . 


. 53 


Practical idealist, . 


. 35 


Circulatory, 


. 54 


Function of, . 


. 39 


Respiratory, 


. 54 


Theory, defined, 


. 37 


Secretory, . 


. 54 


The father 


245, 248 


Excretory, . 


. 54 


The home, . 


. 242 


Animal, 




The mother, 


. 242 


Osseous, 


. 55 


The living teacher, 


. 286 


Muscular, . 


. 56 


Thinking, defined. 


. 74 


Nervous, 


. 57 


Thought, 




Tegumentary, 


. 63 


Stages of , . . . 


118, 119 


Reproductive, 


. 64 


Elements of, . 


. 120 


Summary, 




Thoughtfulness, 


153, 283 


Of mind thinking, . 


. 156 


Topical arrangement, 


. 200 


Of sensibility, 


. 169 


Rules for, 


. 200 


Of will, . 


. 184 


Advantages of, 


. 200 


Of principles of edu 


ca- 


Touch, 




tion, . 


. 187, 188 


Knowledge derived. 


80, 81 


Systemization, define 


d, . . 152 


Qualities of matter. 


. 83 


Tact, defined, 


. 26 


Use of the hands, . 


. 83 


Taste, 




Truth, defined, . 


. 144 


Knowledge derived, 


. 88 


Real, 




. 145 


Quality of matter, 


. 88 


Moral, 




. 145 


Use of, . 


. 89 


Physical, 




. 145 


Teaching English, 


. 270^275 


Probable, 




. 145 


Teaching, defined, 


. 20, 195 


Necessary, 




. 145 


Aim of, . 


. 21 


Intuitive, 




. 78 


School teaching. 


. 21 


Will, defined, 




. 171 


A fine art, 


. 39 


Rational willing, 


. 170 


Generic aim of, 


. 195 


Conditions for choice, 


. 171 


Soul of, . 


. 195 


Something to choose. 


. 171 


Means to, 


. 195 


Reason for choosing. 


. 171 


Motives to, 


. 208, 210 


Choice itself. 


. 171 


One method. 




Power of choice. 


. 172 


Of development, 


. 195 


Fundamental, 


. 172 


Of teaching. 


. 196 


Voluntary, . 


. 172 


Four parties to. 


. 197 


Moral, 


. 172 


Four stages of. 


. 198 


Power of volition, . 


. 172 


Teacher, 




Position of the will, 


172, 173 


Relation to pupils. 


. 24 


Cultivation of will, 


. 178 


Qualifications of. 


. 24, 25, 26 


Word, defined. 


. 


. 74 



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